



Book ' Gr^ch 



CopigiitlN?. 



CDESRICHT DEFOSOi 



Woodwork 

FOR 

Secondary Schools 



A Text-book for 

High Schools and Colleges, Prevocational and 

Elementary Industrial Schools 



BY 

Ira Samuel Griffith 

Chairman of the Manual Arts Department 

THE university OF MISSOURI 




THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS 

Peoria, Illinois 






COPYRIGHT, 1916 



Ira Samuel Griffith 



fl ;7\^ 

AUG 30 1916 

©CI,A-4:!7458 



1-Vl) / 



\ 



PREFACE. 

The aim of this book is to provide in text form the 
essentials of woodwork as usually taught in secondary 
schools. Manifestly, in a book of this size no one subject 
can be treated exhaustively. Nor is such treatment neces- 
sary to fulfill the purpose of the book, which is to provide 
the elements of subject-matter for general experience in 
various lines of woodwork rather than extended experi- 
ence in some one line. It is confidently expected that the 
content will be found sufficiently complete for the purpose 
intended. 

Much of the subject-matter, should limitations of time 
or equipment prevent its use in connection with specific 
shop experience, may be assigned for reading and study 
from the purely "informational" point of view. Such as- 
signments, if made so that they shall have some con- 
nection with the shopwork, will serve to broaden the 
pupil's ''outlook," giving to the specific shop experiences 
a ''setting" calculated to greatly increase the understand- 
ing of their meaning. 

This text presupposes a knowledge of elementary tool 
processes, such as are to be found in well organized grade 
school work, as described in "Essentials of Woodwork- 
ing," by the same author. However, owing to the lack of 
any general agreement as to the dividing line between 
grade school and high school, there will be found included 
in this text those parts of "Essentials of Woodworking" 
which observation has shown are frequently not covered 
in grade schools of good standing. Such duplication 



4 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

makes possible the meeting of diverse conditions now to 
be found in the division of subject-matter between grade 
school and high school. 

The use of woodworking machines, with the exception 
of the lathe, by large classes of freshmen is not recom- 
mended. The chapter on Woodworking Machines is in- 
cluded in the text for the use of such classes as can be 
organized with sufficiently small numbers to allow the 
instructor to give close and continuous attention to the 
machines. There is no reason, however, why much of 
such matter may not be read and studied by freshmen as 
they secure shop experience with the hand tools. A 
freshman who does not expect to take advanced shopwork 
in wood will be profited by knowing how much of his hand 
tool work is duplicated by machines in a way which makes 
possible cheaper and, if well done, equally good pro- 
duction. 

It has been found impracticable to treat the subject of 
carpentry as a chapter of this text. Then, too, because of 
physical limitations, carpentry can hardly find a place so 
nearly universal in the general school curriculum as the 
more strictly bench subjects. For these reasons carpentry 
has been treated by the author in a separate text. 

Credit is due to John R. Frazier, of Bradley Polytechnic 
Institute, for the great majority of pen drawings, which 
assist so greatly in making clear the text ; to C. E. Abbott, 
of the University of Missouri, for writing the first draft of 
the chapter on Pattern-making; to Harry L. King, of the 
Yeatman High School, St. Louis, for the first draft of the 
cha])ter on Inlaying and Wood-Carving; to Prof. Chas. 
A. Bennett, of Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, for 
valuable additional contributions of both illustrations and 
text, sections 201. 202, to the same chapter; to Harry L. 
Hurff, of Bradley Polytechnic Institute, for the first draft 



PREFACE. 5 

of the chapter on Woodworking Machinery ; to Marshall 
H. Brigham and N. C. Murray, of the University of 
Missouri, for generous assistance in arranging materials 
for photographic illustrations, which, in the main, were 
the work of James Barham, Agricultural Experiment 
Station photographer. 

IRA S. GRIFFITH. 
Columbia, Missouri 
July, 1915 



CONTENTS 

Chapter I. — Common Woods 1 1 

1, Classification. Coniferous woods; 2, Cedar; 3, Cypress; 
4, Pine ; 5, Spruce. Broad-leaved woods; 6, Ash ; 7, Bass- 
wood; 8, Birch; 9, Butternut; 10, Cherry; U, Chestnut; 
12, Elm; 13, Gum; 14, Hickory; 15, Maple; 16, Oak; 17, 
Sycamore ; 18, Tulip wood ; 19, Walnut. 

Chapter II. — Tools and Processes . . . ." 24 

20, Flexible folding rule; 21 Pattern-makers' shrinkage 
rule; 22, Framing square; 23, Octagon scale; 24, Brace 
measure table; 25, Essex board measure table; 26, Hun- 
dredths scale; 27, Rafter table; 28, Determining rafter 
length by scaling; 29, Plumb and level; 30, Mortise gages; 
31, Butt gage; 32, Pattern-maker's gage; Gage attachment; 
33, Twist drill gage; 34, Miter square; Combination 
square; 35, Spring dividers; 36, Calipers; 37, Trammel 
points or beam compass; 38, Lumberman's board stick; 
39, Pattern-maker's knife; 40, Butt chisel; 41, Mortise 
chisel; 42, Corner chisel; 43, Wood-turning tools; 44, Tur- 
ner's gouge; 45, Skew or turner's chisel; 46, Scraping 
tools; 47, Carving tools; 48, Carver's punch; 49, Circular 
plane; 50, Rabbet or rebate plane; 51, Rabbet or filletstcr 
plane ; 52, Dado plane ; 53, Plow and matching plane ; 54, 
Universal plane; 55, Router plane; 56, Scraper plane; 57, 
Handled scraper ; 58, Veneer scraper ; 59, Core-box plane ; 
60, Drawing knife; 61, Expansion or extension bit; 62, 
Nut augers ; 63, Angular boring attachment ; 64, Extension 
bit holder; 65, Breast drill; 66, Hand drill; 67, Auto- 
matic hand drill; 68, Spiral screwdriver; 69, Awls; 
70, Wrecking bar; 71, Nail puller; 72, Glass cutter; 73, 
Files and rasps; 74, File cleaner; 75, BeU punch; 76, 
Plug cutter; 77, Screw and plug bit; 78, Washer cutter; 
79, Emery wheel dresser; 80, Sharpening auger bits; 81, 
Forstner auger bit; 82, Sharpening saws; 83, Sharpening 
scrapers; 84, Sharpening lathe tools; 85, Sharpening 
carving tools; 86, Modeling; 87, Glue pots; 88, Surface 

table. 

7 



8 WOODWORK FOR SECOXDARV SCHOOLS. 

Chapter III.— Woodworking ^Machines 7(^ 

89, Introductory; 90, Order of procedure in the use of 
machines; 91, Swing cut-off saw; 92, Operating a swing 
cut-off saw; 93, Hand planer or jointer; 94, Setting up a 
hand planer or jointer; adjustments; 95, Cutter heads; 
set-up and titment of knives ; 96, Operation of a hand 
planer or jointer; 97, Jointer guard; 98, Planer or sur- 
facer ; 99, Operation of a surfacer ; 100, Adjustments on a 
surfacer; 101, Circular saws; 102, Operation of a uni- 
versal saw; 103, Cutting tenons with a universal saw; 
104, Cutting wedges on a universal saw ; 105, Kerfing a 
cove for molding or core-box ; 106, Table for set-up of 
universal saw for compound miters ; 107, Grooving and 
dado or gaining heads for universal saw ; 108, Circular 
miter saws; 109, Fitting and filing circular saws; 110, 
The band saw; 111, Operation of a band saw; 112, Re- 
sawing attachment for band saw; 113, Filing and fitting a 
band saw; 114, Brazing small band saws; 115. The scroll 
saw; 116, Boring machine; 117, Operation of a boring 
machine; 118, Mortiser ; 119, Operation of a hollow chisel 
mortiser; 120, Tenoner; 121, The shaper ; 122, The lathe; 
123, Sanders; 124, The belt sander; 125, Disc and spindle 
sander ; 126, The trimmer ; 127, Miter plane and chute 
board; 128, Miter-box; 129, Picture frame miter-box and 
nailing clamp; 130, Automatic grinder; 131. The grind- 
stone; 132, Power transmission; 133, Splicing belts; 134. 
Selection of belting; 135, Babbitting bearings; 136, Dust 
exhaust system ; 137, Shaft drive vs. individual motor 
drive ; 138, Calculating speeds and diameters of pulleys, 
saws, grindstones, etc. 

Chapter IV. — Joinery 1 52 

139, Joinery; 140, General directions for joinery; 141. 
Dado; 142, Directions for dado; 143, Cross-lap joint; 144, 
Directions for cross-lap joint; 145. Directions for cross-lap 
joint — second tiictlud; 146. Glue joint; 147, Directions for 
glue joint; 148, Doweling; 149, Directions for doweling; 
150, Keyed tenon-and-mortise ; 151, Directions for key; 
152, Directions for tenon; 153, Directions for mortise; 
154, Directions for mortise in the tenon; 155, Blind mor- 



CONTENTS. 9 

tise-and-tenon ; 156, Directions for tenon; 157, Directions 
for laying out mortise; 158, Directions for cutting mor- 
tise; 159, Directions for cutting mortise — second method: 
160, Miter joint; 161, Directions for miter joint; 162, 
Dovetail joint; 163, Directions for dovetail joint; 164, 
Additional joints; 165, Hopper joint; 166, Doweled 
joint; 167, Pinned mortise-and-tenon ; 168, Coped joint. 

Chapter V. — Wood Turning 185 

169, Turning between centers; 170, Centefing the stock; 
171, Adjusting the tool rest; 172, Position of the operator; 
173, Use of the large gouge; 174, Use of the outside 
calipers; 175, Use of the large skew; 176, Cutting off; 
Use of parting tool; 177, Use of the toe of the skew to 
dress off an end; 178, Heel of the skew used to cut a 
shoulder; 179, Long taper cuts; 180, Laying off con- 
secutive measurements; 181, Making full v-grooves ; 182, 
Short convex cuts; beads; 183, Concave cuts; 184, Long 
convex cuts; 185, Face-plate and chuck work; 186, Face- 
plates; Preparation of the stock; 187, Rough scraping; 
188, Convex and concave scraping; 189, Chucks; their 
use; 190. Sandpapering and finishing. 

Chapter VL — Inlaying and Wood-Carving 215 

191, Inlaying; general considerations; 192, Directions for 
forming and fitting inlays of irregular outline ; 193, 
strings and bandings; 194, Directions for building up a 
typical banding; 195, Directions for laying strings and 
bandings; 196, Directions for marquetry; 197, Finishing; 
198, Wood-carvina^ ; 199, General directions; 200, Line 
carving; 201, Ribbon carving; 202, Grounding out and 
molding; 203, Modeling; 204, Light and shade; 205, 
Finishing carvings ; 206, Pierced ornamentation. 

Chapter VII. — Wood Finishing 239 

207, Wood finishes; 208, Brushes; 209, General directions 
for using brush; 210, Fillers; 211, Filling with paste filler; 
212, Stains; 213, Waxing; 214, Varnishes; 215, Shellac; 
216, Shellac finishes; 217, Oil or copal varnishes; 218, 
Flowing copal varnish; 219, Typical finishes for coarse- 



10 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS, 

grained woods; 220, Patching; 221, Painting; 222, Wood 
finishing recipes. 

Chapter VIII. — Furniture Construction 254 

223, General discussion ; 224, Designing ; 225, Structural 
details ; 226, Posts or legs ; 227, Corner fastenings ; 228, 
Slats, splats or splads ; balusters ; 229, Chairs ; 230, Patch- 
ing; 231, Curved work; 232, Veneering; 233, Clamping 
table tops; 234, surfacing table tops; 235, Clamping 
framed structures; 236, Adjusting the clamps; clamping 
a section; 237, Assembling the sections; 238, Scribing the 
posts; 239, Clamping miters; 240, Fastening tops; 241, 
Drawer runners and guides ; 242, Drawer construction ; 
243, Directions for rabbeted corner ; 244, Directions for 
dovetail corner ; 245, Directions for drawer ; 246, Paneling ; 
247, Cutting grooves; 248, Haunched mortise-and-tenon ; 
249, Rabbeting; 250, Fitting a door; 251, Hinging a door; 
252, Locks ; 253, Carcase construction ; 254, Shelving ; 
255, Rods ; 256, Templets ; 257, Period furniture ; 258, 
Moldings; 259, Simple upholstering; 260, Spring or box 
seat; 261, Woven reed seat; 262, Rush fiber seat: 263, 
Cane seating. 

Chapter IX. — Pattern Making . . 320 

264, • Pattern-making ; 265, Materials ; 266, Flasks ; 267, 
Molding operations ; 268, Determining factors in the con- 
struction of a pattern ; 269. Molding sand ; 270, Pattern 
draft; 271, Shrinkage; 272, Shrinkage vs. rappage ; 273, 
Double shrinkage ; 274, Finish ; 275, Making a "lay-out" ; 
276, Order of procedure ; 277, Fillets ; 278, Cores ; core- 
prints ; core-boxes ; 279, Vertical cores and core-prints ; 
280, Horizontal cores; 281, Balanced cores; 282, Stop-ofif 
cores ; 283, Stop-off core-box ; 284, Wood face-plates ; 
285, Segments; 286, Lap joint for six-arm pattern; 287, 
La\'ing out arms ; 288, Forming arms ; 289, Spur gear 
teeth; 290, Bevel gears; 291, Split patterns; dowels; 292, 
Turning split patterns ; 293, Tee-pipe fittings ; 294, Elbow ; 
offset ; return bend ; 295, Loose pieces ; 296, Burning iron ; 
297, Affixing letters or numerals ; 298, Varnishing pat- 
terns. 



CHAPTER I. 

Common Woods. 

1. Classification. — According to botanical classifica- 
tion, woods belong to the Flowering Plants (Phanero- 
gamia). Classified further we have: 

(1) Naked seeds (gymnosperms) 

1. Palm ferns, etc. (cycadaceae) 

2. Joint firs (gnetaceae) 

3. Pines, firs, etc. (conifers) 

(2) Fruits (angiosperms) 

1. One-seed-leaf (monocotyledons) 
(bamboos, palms, grasses, etc.) 

2. Two-seed-leaf (dicotyledons) 

a. Herbs 

b. Broad-leaved trees 
(oak, ash, elm, etc.) 

Conifers and broad-leaved trees are alike in that they 
add a new layer of wood each year which covers the old 
wood of root, trunk, and branch. They are known as 
exogens — outward growers. 

In woods such as the palms, bamboos, and yuccas, 
growth is made from within. 

The new wood strands mingle with the old and cause 
the cross sections to appear dotted. Fig. 1. Trees of 
this class — endogens — after some years of growth form 
harder wood near the surface with younger and softer 
growth toward the center — quite the reverse of the 

11 



12 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



exogens. There are no annual rings. Growth takes 
place mainly at the top. 

Other classifications, such as ''decidu- 
ous," "hard woods," ''evergreens," 
"soft woods," are in common use but 
are not very accurate. 

Deciduous trees are the broad- 
leaved trees and are so called because 
they lose their leaves in the fall. Broad- 
leaved trees are also called hard woods. 
Conifers are called evergreens because their needle- 
shaped leaves remain green on the tree the year around. 
They are also known as soft woods. 

Most of our timber is furnished by (1) the needle- 
leaved conifers and (2) the broad-leaved trees. 




Fig. 1. 

Section of Endogen 



CONIFEROUS WOODS.i 



2. Cedar. — Fig. 2. Light, soft, stifif, not strong, of fine 
texture ; sap and heartwood distinct, the 
former lighter, the latter a dull grayish 
brown, or red. The wood seasons 
^rapidly, shrinks and checks but little, 
and is very durable. Used like soft 
pine, but owing to its great durability 
preferred for shingles, etc. Small sizes 
used for posts, ties, etc. (Since almost 
all kinds of wood are used for fuel and 
charcoal, and in the construction of 
fences, barns, etc., the enumeration of these uses has been 




Cedar. 



^The descriptive matter on woods is quoted, by permission, from 
a report of the Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, Washington, D. C. — Bulletin No. 10, Timber — to which the 
student is referred for further information about trees. 



COMMON WOODS. 



13 



omitted in this list.) Cedars usually occur scattered, but 
they form, in certain localities, forests of considerable 

extent. 

3. Cypress.— Fig 3. Cypress wood in appearance, 
quality, and uses is similar to white cedar. ''Black cy- 
press" and "white cypress" are heavy artd light forms of 





Fig. 3. Cypress. 



Fig. 4. Pine. 



the same species. The cypress is a large deciduous tree 
occupying much of the swamp and overflow land along 
the coast and rivers of the Southern States. 

4. Pine.— Fig. 4. Very variable, very light and soft in 
"soft" pine, such as white pine; of medium weight to 
heavy and quite hard in "hard" pine, of which longleaf or 
Georgia pine is the extreme form. Usually it is stifif, 
quite strong, of even texture, and more or less resinous. 
The sapwood is yellowish white ; the heartwood, orange 
brown. Pine shrinks moderately, seasons rapidly and 
without much injury; it works easily; is never too hard 
to nail (unlike oak or hickory) ; it is mostly quite durable, 
and if well seasoned is not subject to the attacks of boring 
insects. The heavier the wood, the darker, stronger and 
harder it is, and the more it shrinks and checks. Pine is 



14 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



used more extensively than any other kind of wood. It 
is the principal wood in common carpentry, as well as in 
all heavy construction, bridges, trestles, etc. It is used 
also in almost every other wood industry, for spars, 
masts, planks, and timbers in ship building, in car and 
wagon construction, in cooperage, for crates and boxes, in 
furniture work, for toys and patterns, railway ties, water 
pipes, excelsior, etc. Pines are usually large trees with 
few branches, the straight, cylindrical, useful stem form- 
ing by far the greatest part of the tree. 

5. Spruce. — Fig, 5. Resembles soft pine, is light, very 

soft, stiff, moderately strong, 
less resinous than pine ; has 
no distinct heartwood, and is 
of Avhitish color. Used like 
soft pine, but also employed 
as resonance wood and pre- 
ferred for paper pulp. 
Spruces, like pines, form ex- 
tensive forests ; they are 
more frugal, thrive on thin- 
ner soils, and bear more 
shade, but usually require a 
more humid climate. "Black" 
and 'Svhite" spruce, as ap- 
plied by lumbermen, usually refer to narrow and wide 
ringed forms of black spruce. 




Spruce. 



BROAD-LEAVED WOODS. 



6. Ash. — Fig 6. Wood heavy, hard, strong, stiff, 
quite tough, not durable in contact with soil, straight 
grained, rough on the split surface and coarse in texture. 
The wood shrinks moderately, seasons with little injury, 



COMMON WOODS. 



IS 



stands well and takes a good polish. In carpentry ash is 
used for finishing lumber, stairways, panels, etc. ; it is 
used in shipbuilding, in the construction of cars, wagons, 
carriages, etc., in the manufacture of farm implements, 
machinery, and especially furniture of all kinds, and 
also for harness work ; for barrels, baskets,* oars, tool 





Fig. 6. Ash. 



Fig. 7. Basswood. 



handles, hoops, clothespins, and toys. The trees of the 
several species of ash are rapid growers, of small to 
medium height with stout trunks ; they form no forests, 
but occur scattered in almost all broad-leaved forests. 

7. Basswood. — Fig. 7. (Lime tree, American linden, 
lin, bee tree) : Wood light, soft, stiff but not strong, of 
fine texture, and white to light brown color. The wood 
shrinks considerably in drying, works and stands well ; it 
is used in carpentry, in the manufacture of furniture and 
woodenware, both turned and carved, in cooperage, for 
toys, also for paneling of car and carriage bodies. Me- 
dium to large sized trees, common in all northern broad- 
leaved forests ; found throughout the eastern United 
States. 
2 



i6 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



8. Birch. — Fig-. 8. Wood heavy, hard, strong, of fine 
texture; sapwood whitish, heartwood in shades of brown 
with red and yellow ; very handsome, with satiny luster, 
equaling" cherry. The wood shrinks considerably in dry- 
ing, works and stands well and takes a good polish, but 
is not durable if exposed. Birch is used for finishing 
lumber in building, in the manufacture of furniture, in 
woodturnery, for spools, boxes, wooden shoes, etc., for 
shoe lasts and pegs, for wagon hubs, ox yokes, etc., also 
in wood-carving. The birches are medium sized trees, 
form extensive forests northward and occur scattered in 
all broad-leaved forests of the eastern United States. 

9. Butternut.— Fig. 9. (White Walnut.) Wood very 
similar to black walnut, but light, quite soft, not strong 
and of light brown color. Used chiefly for finishing 




Fig. 8. Birch. 



Fig. 9. Butternut. 



lumber, cabinet-work and cooperage. Medium sized tree, 
largest and most common in the Ohio basin ; Maine to 
Minnesota and southward to Georgia and Alabama. 

10. Cherry. — Fig. 10. Wood heavy, hard, strong, of 
fine texture ; sapwood yellowish white, heartwood reddish 
to brown. The wood shrinks considerably in drying, 
works and stands well, takes a good polish, and is much 



COMMON WOODS. 



17 



esteemed for its beauty. Cherry is used chiefly as a 
decorative finishing lumber for buildings, cars and boats, 
also for furniture and for turnery. It is becoming too 
costly for many purposes for which it is naturally suited. 




Jv 
Fig. 10. Cherry. 



Fig. 11. Chestnut. 



The lumber-furnishing cherry of this country, the wild 
black cherry, is a small to medium sized tree, scattered 
thru many of the broad-leaved woods of the western 
slope of the Alleghanies, but found from Michigan to 
Florida and west to Texas. 

11. Chestnut. — Fig. 11. Wood light, moderately soft, 
stifif, not strong, of coarse texture ; the sapwood light, the 
heartwood darker brown. It shrinks and checks con- 
siderably in drying, works easily, stands well, and is very 
durable. Used in cabinet-work, cooperage, for railway 
ties, telegraph poles, and locally in heavy construction. 
Medium sized tree very common in the Alleghanies, oc- 
curs from Maine to Michigan and southward to Alabama. 

12. Elm. — Fig. 12. Wood heavy, hard, strong, very 
tough ; moderately durable in contact with the soil ; com- 
monly cross-grained, difficult to split and shape, warps 
and checks considerably in drying, but stands well if 



18 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




Fig. 12. Elm. 



properly handled. The broad sapwood whitish, heart 
brown, both shades of gray and red; on split surface 
rough, texture coarse to fine, capable of high polish. Elm 

is used in the con- 
struction of cars, 
wagons, etc., in 
boat and ship build- 
ing, for agricultural 
implements and 
machinery; in rough 
cooperage, saddlery, 
and harness work, 
but particularly in 
the manufacture of 
all kinds of furniture, 
where the beautiful figures, especially of the tangential or 
bastard section, are just beginning to be duly appreciated. 
The elms are medium to large sized trees, of fairly rapid 
growth, with stout trunk, form no forests of pure growth, 
but are found scattered in all the broad-leaved woods of 
our country. 

13. Gum. — This general term refers to two kinds of 
wood, usually distinguished as sweet or red gum, and 
sour, black, or tupelo gum, the former being a relative 
of the witch-hazel, the latter belonging to the dogwood 
family. 

Sweet Gum. Fig, 13. (Red gum, liquidambar) ; wood 
rather heavy, rather soft, quite stiff and strong, tough, 
commonly cross-grained, of fine texture; the broad sap- 
wood whitish, the heartwood reddish brown ; the wood 
warps and shrinks considerably, but does not check 
badly, stands well when fully seasoned, and takes good 
polish. Sweet gum is used in carpentry, in the manu- 
facture of furniture, for cut veneer, for wooden plates, 



COMMON WOODS. 



19 



plaques, baskets, etc., also for wagon hubs, hat blocks, 
etc. A large sized tree, very abundant, often the principal 
tree in the swampy parts of the bottoms of the Lower 
Mississippi Valley ; occurs from New York to Texas and 
from Indiana to Florida. 

14. Hickory. — Fig. 14. Wood very heavy, hard and 
strong, proverbially tough, of rather coarse texture, 
smooth and of straight grain. The broad sapwood white, 




Fig. 13. Gum. 



Fig. 14. Hickory. 



the heart reddish nut brown. It dries slowly, shrinks 
and checks considerably, is not durable in the ground or 
if exposed, and, especially the sapwood, is always subject 
to the inroads of boring insects. Hickory excels as car- 
riage and wagon stock, but is also extensively used in the 
manufacture of implements and machinery, for tool 
handles, timber pins, for harness work and cooperage. 
The hickories are tall trees with slender stems, never 
form forests, occasionally small groves, but usually occur 
scattered among other, broad-leaved trees in suitable 
localities. 



20 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



15. Maple. — Fig. 15. Wood heavy, hard, strong, stiff, 
and tough, of fine texture, frequently wavy grained, thus 
giving rise to "curly" and "blister" figures ; "not durable 

in the ground or 
otherwise exposed. 
Maple is creamy 
white, with shades 
of light brown in the 
heart ; shrinks mod- 
erately, seasons, 
works and stands 
well, wears smooth- 
ly and takes fine 
polish. The wood is 
used for ceiling, 
flooring, paneling, 
stairway and other 
Fig. 15. Maple. finishing lumber in 

house, ship and car 
construction ; it is used for the keels of boats and ships, 
in the manufacture of implements and machinery, but 
especially for furniture, where entire chamber sets of 
maple rival those of oak. Maple is also used for shoe 
lasts and other form blocks, for shoe pegs, for piano 
actions, school apparatus, for wood type in show bill 
printing, tool handles, wood-carving, turnery and scroll 
work. 

The maples are medium sized trees, of fairly rapid 
growth ; sometimes form forests and frequently constitute 
a large proportion of the arborescent growth. 

16. Oak. — Fig. i6. Wood very variable, usually very 
heavy and hard, very strong and tough, ])()rous, and of 
coarse texture ; the sapwood whitish, the heart "oak" 
brown to reddish brown. It shrinks and checks badly. 




COMMON WOODS. 



21 




giving trouble in seasoning, but stands well, is durable 
and little subject to attacks of insects. Oak is used for 
many purposes : in shipbuilding, for heavy construction, 
in common carpentry, in furniture, car and wagon work, 
cooperage, turnery, and 
even in wood-carving ; 
also in the manufacture 
of all kinds of farm im- 
plements, wooden mill 
machinery, for piles 
and wharves, railway 
ties, etc. The oaks are 
medium to large sized 
trees, forming the pre- 
dominant part of a 
large portion of our 
broad-leaved forests, so that these are generally ''oak 
forests" though they always contain a considerable pro- 
portion of other kinds of trees. Three well marked kinds, 
white, red, and live oak are distinguished and kept 
separate in the market. Of the two principal kinds, 
white oak is the stronger, tougher, less porous, and more 
durable. Red oak is usually of coarser texture, more 
porous, often brittle, less durable, and even more trouble- 
some in seasoning than white oak. In carpentry and 
furniture work, red oak brings about the same price at 
present as white oak. The red oaks everywhere accom- 
pany the white oaks, and like the latter, are usually 
represented by several species in any given locality. Live 
oak, once largely employed in shipbuilding, possesses all 
the good quailties (except that of size) Of the white oak, 
even to a greater degree. It is one of the heaviest, hardest 
and most durable building timbers of this country; in 
structure it resembles the red oak but is much less porous. 



22 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



17. Sycamore. — Fig. 17. (Button wood, button-ball 
tree, water beech) : Wood moderately heavy, quite hard, 
stiff, strong, tough, usually cross-grained, of coarse 
texture, and white to light brown color ; the wood is hard 
to split and work, shrinks moderately, warps and checks 
considerably but stands well. It is used extensively for 





Fig. 17. Sycamore. 



Fig. 18. Tulip Wood. 



drawers, backs, bottoms, etc., in cabinet-work, for tobacco 
boxes, in cooperage, and also for finishing lumber, where 
it has too long been underrated. A large tree, of rapid 
growth, common and largest in the Ohio and Mississippi 
valleys, at home in nearly all parts of the eastern United 
States. 

18. Tulip Wood.— Fig. 18. Tulip tree. (Yellow 
poplar, white wood) : Wood quite variable in weight, 
usually light, soft, stiff but not strong, of fine texture, 
and yellowish color; the wood shrinks considerably, but 
seasons without much injury; works and stands remark- 
ably well. Used for siding, for paneling, and finishing 
lumber in house, car and shipbuilding, for sideboards and 
panels of wagons and carriages ; also in the manufacture 
of furniture, implements and machinery, for pump logs, 
and almost every kind of common woodenware, boxes, 



COMMON WOODS. 



23 



shelving, drawers, etc. An ideal wood for the carver and 
toy man. A large tree, does not form forests, but is quite 
common, especially in the Ohio basin ; occurs from New 
England to Missouri and southward to Florida. 

19. Walnut. — Fig. 19. Black walnut. Wood heavy, 
hard, strong, of coarse texture ; the narrow sapwood 
whitish, the heartwood chocolate brown. The wood 
shrinks moderately in drying, works and stands well, 
takes a good polish, is quite handsome, and has been for 
a long time the favorite cabinet wood in this country. 
Walnut formerly used even for fencing, has become too 



.i^ 




Fig. 19. Walnut. 



costly for ordinary uses, and is today employed largely 
as a veneer, for inside finish and cabinet-work, also for 
turnery, for gunstocks, etc. Black walnut is a large tree, 
with stout trunk, of rapid growth, and was formerly quite 
abundant throughout the Alleghany region, occurring 
from New England to Texas, and from Michigan to 
Florida. 




Fig. 20. Flexible Folding Rule. 



CHAPTER 11. 
Tools and Processes.^ 

20. Flexible Folding Rule. — The flexible folding rule 
is used by carpenters and others where distances to be 

measured usually ex- 
II ^-^=r^== .._ ceed two feet. It is 

made of flexible hard 
wood with steel 
riveted joints. Each 
joint contains a stiff 
spring which holds the parts in position when open. It 
can be obtained in four, six and eight foot lengths. Fig. 
20. 

Ihe rule shown in Fig. 21 differs from the ordinary 
flexible rule in that it has a sliding extension which makes 
possible inside calipering. This will be found very con- 
venient in all work requiring inside measurements. Such 
rules will measure four or six feet plus the length of the 
extension. 

21. Pattern-Maker's Shrinkage Rule.— All metals, 
w h e n c a s t, 

shrink in cool- 

i n g. The 

amount of 

shrinkage d e- 

pends upon the 

kind of metal, 

the thickness of 

the piece cast, and the conditions under wliich it. is cast. 

1 Xo attempt is made to list in this chapter such tools as are 
ordinarily made use of in grammar grade woodworking. 

24 




Fig. 21. 
Folding Rule and Extension. 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. ■ 25 

Under ordinary conditions, where the thickness of the 
casting is about 1", the average shrinkage is as fol- 
lows for the following metals : Cast iron, ^" ; steel, |" ; 
brass, j\" ; tin, 1/12". If the castings are thicker the 
shrinkage will average less ; if thinner, more under the 
same conditions of casting. 

In order to allow for this shrinkage patterns must be 
made correspondingly larger than the finished casting is 
to be. Shrinkage rules are graduated to make such al- 
lowances for the various metals used in common foundry 
practice. The figures on a shrink rule refer to the dimen- 
sions of the casting, but the spacings are such as will give 
the proper size for the pattern. Fig. 22. Thus, a rule for 
use in making patterns to be cast in iron will have a 
shrinkage allowance of I" per foot, making the rule 24^" 
long with graduations into 8ths, 16ths, 32nds and 64tlis. 
A shrinkage rule for steel will have a length of 24^', and 
brass 24f". 



lllJLl:lli?lllllli?lu,lllfllhl,lflllllll^lllll) rl?i,lllfl!l,lll^lfhlli?l?i,l, 



Fig. 22. Pattkrn-Maker's Shrinkage Rule. 

22. Framing Square. — The framing square consists of 
two parts, the blade which is 24'' long and the tongue 
which is either 16" or 18" long. The blade is 2" wide 
and the tongue is H". Such squares are variously 
marked. In addition to the linear graduations, there will 
usually be found tables of various sorts, different makes 
having different tables and arrangements. That side of a 
square having the maker's name stamped thereon, is con- 
sidered the face. 

23. Octagon Scale. — Along the middle of the face of 
the tongue of certain squares will be found a scale like 



26 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



that shown in Fig. 23. This is known as an octagon or 
eight-square scale, and is used as its name impHes for 
laying out octagons. 



HT- 'I 21 3' «l sl ' e' ' 71 J ' 9I ' 10' ' III ' 12' ' 




' ' I ' ' ' j 'i° ' I I I I I I J I 2,« I I I I I I i I I 3,0 I I I I I I I I I <,« I I I I I I I I r r,o I 

Fig. 23. Octagon Scale. 



hlilil i l 



.uaiiiKinO 



To use this scale, (1) locate 
the middles of the sides of the 
square in which the octagon is 
to be formed, as A, B, C, D, 
Fig. 24. (2) Now, with the 
dividers, take as many spaces 
from the scale as there are 
inches in the width of the square and lay ofif this space on 
either side of the middle points just located, as at 1, 2, 3, 
4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Connect these points as indicated by the 
dotted lines. This gives an eight-sided figure which is 
sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. 

24. Brace Measure Table. — This table enables the 
carpenter to determine quickly the length of a brace when 

^ BiLA'A 

I A. - e- • 




6 B 5 

Fig. 24. Laying off an Octagon. 




Fig. 25. Brace. 



its extremities are certain equal distances from the in- 
tersection of post and beam, A and B, Fig. 25. 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



27 




'iG. 26. Brack 
Measure 
Table. 



As a rule, braces do not 
have to be of any very 
definitely prescribed lengths. 
For this reason the table 
gives runs (runs are the 
horizontal and vertical 
measurements, A and B, Fig. 25) with in- 
tervals as shown in Fig. 26. 

The problem is one of solving for the 
hypotenuse of a right triangle having given 
the length of the two equal sides. The 
table eliminates figuring by giving the 
answers for sides of certain values. For 
example, if a brace is to have a run of 36 
inches on beam and on post, its length will 
have to be 50.91 inches, which will be found 
on the scale or table thus : 36 

36 

25. Essex Board Measure Table. — By 
means of this table. Fig. 27, it is possible to 
determine quickly the number of board feet 
which a timber or board contains. 

A board 12'' wide will contain, if 1'' thick, 
a number of board feet equal to the number 
of linear feet in its length. The figure 12, 
therefore, on the outer edge, represents a 1" 
board 12'' wide, and is the starting point for 
all calculations. 

Suppose a board is being surveyed which 
is 12" wide and 8 ft. long. Without any 
calculations we know its board measure. A 
glance down the column of figures under the 
12, on the square, until we reach the figure 



50 91 



28 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



representing the length of 
the 1)oard in feet verifies 
our answer. Suppose, 
now, the board is 8" wide 
and 14 ft. long. We again 
look under the 12 and cast the eye 
down the column until we reach the 
figure 14, the number of feet in length, 
then following along this line to the left 
until we reach a point directly under 
the figure 8 of the edge graduations 
representing the width in inches, we 
find 9 to the left of the cross-line and 4 
to the right of the same line, which 
means 9 and 4/12 ft. for a V board. 
If the board were 2'' in thickness, the 
total would be obtained by multiplying 
the result just obtained by 2. 

If a 1)oard is wider than 12", then the 
result will be found to the right of the 
12'' mark. 

Suppose a board is 18 ft. long. Since 
this number is not to be found under 
the figure 12, it will be necessary to find 
the number of feet in two boards whose 
combined lengths equal 18 ft., and 
then combine the results. 

26. Hundredths Scale.— At the in- 
tersection of the blade and tongue of 
the framing square of Figs. 26 and 27 
is shown a 1/100 scale. This scale is 
used in connection with the scale along 
the inner edge of the tongue. A sharp 
pointed pair (^f dividers will be used to 





Fig. 27. Board 

Measure 

Table. 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



29 




m 



III 



Fig. 28. Nichols' 
Rafter 
Table. 



transfer the spacing- to the scale for 
reading, and vice versa. 

27. Rafter Table.— By means of the 
rafter table, Fig. 28, it is possible to 
determine rafter data for a square cor- 
nered building for the common pitches, 
the rise and run being known. 

The "run" of a rafter, when in place, 
is the horizontal distance measured 
from the extreme end of the foot to a 
point directly below the ridge end of 
the rafter, Fig. 29. 

Plumb Cuth |R_id&e 



Jeat-Oic 
HeelCut 




POJT- 



--POJT 



^J>»*J Iter' 

Fig. 29. "Run" and "Rise" of Rafters. 



The "rise'' is the vertical distance 
from the ridge end of the rafter to the 
level of the foot. 

The "pitch" of a rafter is the ratio of 
the rise of the rafter to the whole width 
of the building. Thus, if the span, Fig. 



30 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



29, should be 24 ft. and the rise 8 ft., the pitch would be i. 
The "cuts" of a rafter are obtained by placing the 

square so that the 12'' mark on the blade and the number 

on the tongue 
which represents 
the rise shall be 
on the edge of the 
rafter. In Fig. 30 
the square is 
placed to give a 
cut on the end of 
the rafter suitable 
for an 8 ft. rise to 




Fig. ,30. Square Placed for Plumb Cut. 



a 24 ft. span, and 8'' rise to a 12'' run. The line B gives the 
angle for the ridge or plumb cut ; the line A gives the cut 
for the foot of the rafter, the seat cut. 

To make use of the table. Fig. 28, first look at the inch 
line figures on the outside, or top edge, of the blade for 
the figure that is the same as the rise of your roof. Under 
this figure will be found all the figures giving lengths of 
rafters and all side cuts. The run is 1 ft. on every table. 
There are seventeen of these tables, commencing at 2" 
and continuing to 18". For example, take 8" rise to the 
foot, or third pitch, under the 8" line figure. For length 
of common rafters, use the first figures in the table, 14.42", 
multiply by half the width of the building, which will give 
the whole length of the rafters. Suppose the width to be 
20 ft., the rafters would be 144.20" long, or 12.01 ft. 

For length of hip or valley rafter use the second figures, 
18.78", and again multiply by half the width of the build- 
ing, 10 ft., and the result, 15.65 ft., is the length required. 
For top and bottom cuts of rafters, common and "jacks," 
use the 8" and 12" marks on blade and tongue, either way 
as most convenient. (The 8" is the vertical, or top, of the 



■ TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 31 

rafter, and the 12'' is the horizontal, or bottom.) For hip 
and valley rafters, use 8'' and 17", proceeding same as 
before. 

For length of ''jack" rafters, using third pitch as in 
previous example, the third number in the 8" table, 19^'', 
is the length of the first ''jack" w^hen they are spaced 16" 
1)etween centers, and also the difference betv^een the 
lengths of the others, each one \9y longer than the one 
nearer the first one. 

The fourth figure in the same 8" table, 2 ft. 4J", is the 
length of the first "jack" rafter, 2 ft. betv^een centers, also 
the difference in length of the others. 

For side cut on "jacks," etc., the fifth figures in the 
table under the 8" mark are 10j%". These refer to the 
graduation marks on the outside edge of the blade... Put 
that lOfV" mark on the edge of the "jack" and the 12" 
mark on the tongue on the same edge ; mark the tongue 
for side cut of "jack." This also gives the right angle to 
cut plancier and mouldings on the jet that runs up the 
gable. The level plancier and moulding cuts, roof boards 
and shingles can be marked on the blade side of the square 
or the references transposed, using the 12" on the body 
and the body reference given in the table on the tongue. 

Hip and valley rafter side cuts are marked by using the 
last figure in the table same as before. 

Notice that the 12" mark on the tongue is alw^ays used 
in all angle cuts, both top and bottom and side cuts, thus 
leaving the workman but one number to remember w^hen 
laying out side or angle cuts. This is the figure taken 
from the fifth or sixth number in the table. The cuts 
come always on the right hand or tongue side. When 
marking boards these can be reversed for convenience at 
any time by taking the 12" mark on the blade and using 
the blade reference on the tongue. 
3 



32 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



28. Determining Rafter Length by Scaling. — Counting 
the outer grachiations on both tongue and blade of the 

back of the square, it will 
be seen that there are 
twelve to the inch. By 
considering the inch di- 
visions as feet and the 
fractional divisions as 
inches, one can readily 
scale the length of a rafter 
by placing another square 
as shown in Fig. 31 and 
reading the graduations 
u])on it as feet and inches. 

A rule graduated to twelfths will serve in place of this 

second square. 

29. Plumb and Level. — Fig. 32 is an illustration of a 
combined pluml^ and level. This instrument is used, as 
its name impHes, to test for plumbness or levelncss. The 
glasses arc made and set with the crowning side up, thus 

Level Giiv55 




Fig. 31. 

Obtaining Rafter Length 

BY Scale Method. 




PlUMb GlA55 
5PIIIIT GU55 



T=T 



3 



BflA55 Tips- 



Fig. 32 . Plumb and Level. 



causing the l)u1)l)le to seek the central part, which is 
marked bv means of two indelible lines. In the best 
])huul)s and levels this glass is adjustable, an outer plate 
being renioxed to gixe access to the adjusting screws. 
The usual length of this tool is from 24" to 30''. 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



33 



5PUR3- 




•THUME.-5ci\.EW5 



5LIDL- 



^EAivr o\ Bar. 



Fig. 33. AioRTisE Gage — Slide Bar. 




30. Mortise Gages. — Mortise gages differ from the 
marking gages in having two marking points or spurs 
so placed that 
they can be ad- 
justed to mark 
the two sides of 
a mortise with- 
out change of 
position of spur. Fig. 33 is an illustration of a slide 
mortise gage, and Fig. 34 of a double bar mortise gage. 

In the slide mortise gage one point is fixed to the beam 
while the other point is attached to the end of a metal 

slide, on the reverse end of 
which is a thumbscrew. By 
adjusting this slide and the 
gage ahead, various settings 
are possible for mortises of 
various widths. To adjust, 
set the two spurs to the width of mortise desired, then 
adjust the head wMth reference to the nearer spur. If 
tlie mortise is to be cut by means of the chisel alone, the 
spurs may more safely be set by placing them to either 
side of the chisel edges. 

In the double bar gage two independent slides work 
within one head. Each slide or 1)ar has a fixed- spur. One 
side of a mortise is marked and the gage rolled over to 
bring the spur of the other bar in contact. This gage is 
especially useful where two separate markings are to be 
made on different pieces of stock. 

31. Butt Gage. — In hanging or hinging doors, where 
it is necessary to carry two and three different gage set- 
tings, the butt gage will be found convenient. It has its 
spurs so placed that lines may be gaged readily near or 



Fig. 34. Mortise Gage — 
Double Bar. 



34 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



-CUTTEK5 



into internal corners, a thing impossible with the ordinary 
gage with its spur placed back from the end of the slide 
or beam. 

In hinging, two measurements are to be gaged— (1) 
the location of the hinge leaf on the jamb, with a corres- 
ponding location upon the door; (2) the location on both 
jamb and door for thickness of the leaf. Where several 
doors with similar hinges are to be hung, the butt gage 
carries the various settings without change and permits 

the spur to mark in the internal 
corners of stop and casing. 

Cutter A, Fig. 35, marks 
from the rabbet in the jamb; 
cutter B marks from the edge of 
the door engaged in closing; 
cutter C marks the thickness of 
the leaf of the hinge. 
This gage may also be used as a square to square the 
location of the hinge on either door or jamb. 

32. Pattern-Maker's Gage; Gage Attachment.— This 
gage, Fig. 36, has a roller cutter as well as a spur, so 




Fig. 35. Butt Gage. 




>^< 



-SPUfi 



Fig. 36. Pattern-Maker''s Gage. Fig. 37. Gage Attachment. 




placed that lines may be gaged up into internal corners. 

Fig. 37 shows an attachment which makes possible 

the accurate marking from inside or outside curved edges. 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



35 



33. Twist Drill Gage. 

— The twist drill gage, 
Fig. 38, enables the work- 
er to determine the drill 
number or gage for any 
particular piece of work. 

34. Miter Square; 
Combination S q u a r e. — 
This tool has its blade set 
at an angle of 45 degrees 
to the beam and is used in 
laying out miters of that 
number of degrees, Fig. 
39. 

The combination square 
with the bevel protractor 
will be found useful in 
pattern-making and in car- 
pentry, as well as in 
machine shop work,- and is 
fast supplanting the miter 
square. By means of it. 
Fig. 40, cylindrical pieces 
may be centered and 
angles of any number of 
degrees laid off. 




DEAM 



TIME O SAVER 
BRILL & TAP DRILL GAGiK 

CHART 

FORMACFJKE SCREVfTAPS 



THE1..S STARRETT CO. 
ATHOL.MASS .U S Af^ 



W- 



j ^ -1 DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS 

OF <^ 



14)<20 10 ^ ( 

14X24 6 Ya^ f 
12X24- 15 1 "t; 



)- O^ OS 'S 



1?7 1^ 



11X24 19 3 
10X24 23 9 

10X32 20 -'^ 
9X32 2i 13 
8X32 28 18 
7X32 30 22 
6X02 33 27 
&X40 3 6 29 
.4X36 41 31 
3X43 4s: 37 
2X55 4G4 3 



140 136 040 

144 I2a 041 

120 042 

1 0^ V. (\) *S1 

14T 116 043 

153 U3 046 

)<J^ iS4 ^ii 052 ■ 
^>^ 157 

-04 159 106 0S9 



)Ji 



■)' 



110 OSS 
159 
V'^ 161 104 063 

7 CSi^i^"" 

169 °^^ 070 
l^ 173 °3e 073 






OSS 



076 



^. "^ G% 



) '--"^ 078 




Fig. 38. Twist Drill Gage. 

35. Spring Dividers. — 

For pattern work where 
fine lines and great ac- 
curacy are required, 
spring dividers like those 
shown in Fig. 41 will be 
found useful. 



Fig. 39. Miter Square. 



36 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




Fig. 40. Bevel Protractor Head 
Combination Square. 



36. Caliper s.— 

Calipers are of two 
kinds ; inside, Fig. 42, 
and outside, Fig. 43. 
They are used in 
measuring or testing 
the diameters of cy- 
lindrical bodies, as in 
wood-turning. The 
adjusting nut may be 
either spring or solid. 
In the former the ad- 
justment may be 
made very quickly, 
the action being not 



-5p^ing 



Lock Nut OR 
5PIIING Nut 

=0 



unlike that of the 
rapid-acting vise. 
37. Trammel Points or Beam . Compass. — Wood- 
workers frequently have occasion to strike arcs of circles 
requiring radii 
greater than 
can be secured 
with dividers. 
T r a m m e 1 
point s, two 
s c r i b e r s 
attached to a 
beam, F^ig. 44, 
make possible 
such work. If 
desired, a ]:)encil 
may be at- 
tached to one of the points. 




LtG5 




FiG. 41. 


Fig. 42. 


Fig. 43. 


Dividers. 


Inside 


Outside 




Calipers. 


Calipers. 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



2>7 



5EANA 



Trammel points may be got "large," length of points 
2" with over-all length of 4f " ; 
"medium" with length of points 
2", over-all 4|'' ; "small" length of 
points \y\ over-all length ZV' . 
Beams are not provided, unless 
so stated. 

38. Lumberman's Board Stick. 
— This scale is made out of split 
hickory so that no cross grain 
may cause a weakness in it. In 
use, the metallic end is held 

against one edge of the board to p^^_ ^4 ' Trammel Points 
be surveyed or estimated, the eye or Beam Compass. 
is fixed upon the figures on the 

metallic part and allowed to follow, to the other edge of 
the board, that division of the metallic part which repre- 
sents the length of the board. It is seldom necessary for 
a surveyor to measure the length of a board, he learns to 
recognize standard lengths at a glance. That number of 
the division selected which is nearest the edge of the 




Y-P01MT5 



Head- 




H/VNDLE- 



4 J fr 7- 8- 9- 1-0 H 1-2 13 U VTuP t pTH P) I 'S 
3- i- S ^ 7- 8- » 1-0 11 iZ 13 H \fl 3 -3 3-4 1 4 



..?! *! i>i.....'<ii: 



fl- ?■ i» jr-TZ7%z8 Z'f~u 



Scale 




Fig. 45. Lumberman's Board Stick, 



board gives the total number of board feet in a board 1" 
thick. Boards less than 1"' are surveyed as 1". Boards 
thicker than 1" are surveyed as V and the total increased 
in proportion to the thickness above 1"'. Fig. 45. 



38 ■ WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

39. Pattern-Maker's Knife. — A very convenient tool 
for pattern-makers is the knife shown in Fig. 46. It can 

r5RA66 Bo^te:,i.nd t)e fitted with a de- 
tachable handle and 
is suited to paring 
and lavine out. 



DETACHA&LE KmiFE r^ALE6 



^^^^^Jl 



Lining 



Fig. 46. Pattkrn-Makek's Knii-k 



40. Butt Chisel.— The butt chisel. Fig. 47, is used 
mainly in trimming mortises and making gains for setting 
hardware, such as hinges. 

Its short blade permits the 
worker to get closer to the 
work being done. The sizes, 
like those of other chisels, 
vary from Jj" to F' by 
eighths, and from 1" to 2'' by quarters. 

41. Mortise Chisel. — The mortise chisel, Fig. 48. has 

IHON Fer-ivule- 




Tang- 
FiG. 47. Butt Chisel. 




60CKET- 

FiG. 48. Mortise Chisel. 



an exceptionally heavy blade to withstand prying and 
heavy pounding. 

42. Corner Chisel. — As its name implies, this chisel 
is used in cutting corners square after a series of holes 




Iron FtiiRULE 



FiG. 49. Corner Chisels. 

has been bored. for the mortise. Fig. 49. The sizes run 
from J" to li" by eighths. 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 39 

43. Wood-Turning Tools. — Wood-turning tools may 
be divided into two classes — those which cut the fibers 
and those which remove the surplus wood thru scraping. 
To the first class belong the turner's gouge and the 
turner's skew or chisel. The common tools belonging to 
this second class are the parting tool, straight tool, round- 
nose scraper, diamond-point parting tool, right and left 
skew scrapers, and inside scrapers. These are made in 
varying sizes. 

44. Turner's Gouge. — This tool. Fig. 50, is used for 
roughing ofi^. The bevel is on the outside and the corners 
are ground off as shown in the illustration. The cut- 
ting angle should be about 30°. Sizes vary from Y' to 



^ — Uj . w J 



<^ 



Fig. 50. Large Turner''s Gouge. 

r' by eighths, and from V to 2'' by quarters. The larger 
sizes are used for roughing off, while the smaller tools 
are used for concave cutting, the nose being slightly 
differently shaped as described later. 

45. Skew or Turner's Chisel. — The skew. Fig. 51, is 
beveled on each side equally with a wedging angle of 
about 20° for soft wood and a side angle of about 70°. 



ZZ 



Fig. 51. Turner's Skew Chisel. 

Smooth, safe work is possible only when turning tools 
are properly shaped and are given keen cutting edges. 
The skew, especially, should be well ground, oilstoned 
and honed. Sizes vary from ^" to f by eighths and from 
1'' to 2'' by quarters. 



40 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



46. Scraping Tools. — Scraping- tools, Fig. 52, are 
ground on one side only, except the parting tool which 




"^ 



a. Cut-off, Diamond Point or Parting 

Tool. 

b. Square Nose Scraping Chisel. 



c 



< 



^^ 



1— f 

I I 



(I c. Round Nose Scraping Chisel. 

[/ d. Spear or Diamond Point Scraper. 

jY e. Left Skew Scraper. 

_U f. Right Skew Scraper. 

g. Inside Square Scraper. 






3 



Fig. 52. Scraping Tools. 

is ground on two sides. Scraping tools are given wedges 
of about 45°. 

Owing to the fact that these 
tools scrape instead of cut, like 
other scraping tools generally, 
they work best when given a 
scraping burr. After grinding 
and oilstoning in the usual man- 
ner, removing the wire edge, 
place the tool on the oilstone. 
Fig. 53, and move the tool as 
indicated. A firm but not heavy 

pressure is all that is required. t? a -d t> 

^ ^ f^iG. 53. Putting Burr on 

The parting tool needs no burr. Scraping Chisel. 



sH^^^^^^^^H 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



41 



•f fl --_ „, Fig. 57 

\}r' Long 




Fig. 54. 

Straight Gouge. 



Fig. 55. 

Short Bent 
Gouge. 



Fig. 56. 

Back Short 
Bent Gouge. 



Bent 



Gouge. 



Fig. 58. 

Front, Short 
Bent Chisel. 



<^^— "-Ri 



59. 

ght Corner 
Chisel. 



Fig. 60. 

Left Corner 
Chisel. 



Fig. 61. 
Carving or 
Firmer . Chisel. 



Fig. 62. 

Skew Carving 
or Correr 
I-'irmer Chisel. 




Fig. 63. 

Parting Tools — 
Straight, Short 
Bent, Long 
Bent. 



42 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



47. Carving Tools. — Wood-carving tools vary in shape 
and size according to the particular use to which they are 
to be put. Among the most common forms are the 
straight gouge, Fig. 54 ; front, short bent gouge. Fig. 55 ; 
back, short bent gouge. Fig. 56; curved or long bent 
gouge. Fig. 57; front, short bent chisel. Fig. 58; right 
corner chisel. Fig. 59; left corner chisel. Fig. 60; carving 
or firmer chisel, Fig. 61 ; skev^ carving or corner firmer 
chisel. Fig. 62; long and short bent parting tools. Fig. 63. 

Each of the gouges enumerated will vary not only in 




Fig. 64. Carver's Marking Punches. 

size but in the amount of curvature as well. These 
curvatiuxs or sweeps are known in general as quick, 
middle and flat. The internal angles of parting tools also 
vary. Common sizes run from ^'' to ^'' or j" by eighths. 
48. Carver's Punch. — These tools are used by carvers 
in giving a lowered background a treatment different 
from any possible with the other tools. Fig. 64. 




-Kno& mo COTTOM 

/\DJU5TIV\ENT, 




Handle 



^LEXI&lE bOTTCM 

Fig. 65. Circular Plane. 

49. Circular Plane. — The circular plane. Fig. 65, is 
used for smoothing either convex or concave surfaces. By 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



43 



Depth Gagc 




Fig. 66. 



5CORJNG 3PUft:- 

Rabbet or Rebate Plane. 



means of an adjusting screw its bottom of flexible steel 

can be set to arcs of various curvatures. The tool is 10'' 

long- and carries a If" cutter. 

50. Rabbet or Rebate Plane. — The rabbet plane, Fig. 

66, is used in cutting rabbets or rebates. The plane 

shown in the il- 
lustration is fit- 
ted with a spur 

which scores the 

wood ahead of 

the cutter, thus 

insuring a clean 

corner. It also 

has an adjustable 

depth gage 

which prevents the plane from cutting deeper than is 

desired. 

In using this plane one must carefully press it against 

the guide, Fig. 67. In one's effort to do this the plane is 

sometimes tilted from level ; this but 
serves to aggravate the difficulty. 
When this happens it is best to stop 
planing and straighten up the ver- 
tical side of the rabbet by means of 
a paring chisel, then proceed. 

In rabbeting on the reverse side 
of stock, small brads are used to 
fasten a guide or fence against which 
the plane is to be placed in begin- 
ning the rabbet. Where the rabbet 
is to be cut on a face, a broader guide 

must be used and hand clamps attached to hold it in place. 
The length of this plane is 8'' and the cutters are 1", 

li" and IJ" wide. 




)(]pGUIDE &LOCK 
n)TOCK 



Fig. 67. Guide for 
Rabbet Plane. 



44 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



61. Rabbet and Filletster Plane. — In Fig. 68 is shown 
such a plane with tw^o seats for the cutter. The forward 



5fAT5 fOK CuTTEfl- 

Depth Gage 





riLET 



Fk;. 68. Rabbet and Filletster Plane. 

seat is used where it is desired to plane up into a corner. 

This plane differs from the rahbet plane just described in 

having an adjustable fence or guide attached to the stock 

of the plane. This guide obviates 

the necessity for tacking a guide 

to the wood being planed or of 

using hand clamps to hold such a 

Fig. 69. guide in place. It can be attached 

Filletstered Joint. \^^ ^-^^^^^ ^|^^ ^.-^j^^ ^^ j^^^ ^-^^ ^f 

the stock. Fig. 69 illustrates a filletstered joint. The 
length of plane is 8^' with a cutter \V' wide. 

52. Dado Plane. — The dado plane is made in various 
widths and is used to cut dadoes, or grooves, across the 
grain of the wood. The plane shown in Fig. 70 has two 
cutting spurs one on each side of the plane to precede 
the cutter and score the wood that it may be removed 
without breaking. The cutter is set on askew. The 
plane is guided by means of a strip, or fence, fastened 
to th.e stock being planed. Fig. 71. The usual length of 
plane is 8" and the cutters and widths of plane vary from 



1" 

4 



to 1" by eighths. 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



45 




Fig. 70. Dado Plane. 




Fig. 71. Planing Dado Joint. 



46 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



53. Plow and Matching Plane. — The plow is used to 
cut grooves along the grain. By an exchange of cutters 
variotis sized grooves may be worked. An adjustable 



fh^^K 




AR.M6 

Fig. 72. Plow and Matching Plane. 



fence determines the distance of the groove from the edge 
of the board while a depth gage limits the depth. The 
plane shown in Fig. 72 is a combination plane which may 

be used as a plow, dado, filletster, 
and matching plane. The length is 
10|". Plow and dado bits range in 
size from i%" to f by sixteenths, 
with l'\ I", r, V\ and \y' ad- 



FiG. 72A. 
Matched Joint. 



ditional ; also there is a IV' filletster cutter and a ^" 
tonguing and slitting tool. 

54. Universal Plane. — Fig. 7Z illustrates a plane 
which, by a proper selection of cutters, can be made to 
do the work of a (1) header, center header; (2) rabbet 
and filletster ; (3) dado ; (4) plow ; (5) matching plane ; 
(6) slitting plane; (7) sash plane; (8) niolding plane. 
Varying sizes for eacli kind of cutter make possible an 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



47 



unlimited variety. The plane is possessed of a fence, 
stop, or depth gage, and of adjustable cutting or scoring 
spurs when working across the grain. 

The main stock, A, carries the cutter adjustment and 
a steel bottom which form a bearing for the outer edge 




Fig. 73. Universal Plane. 



of the cutter which slides on arms secured to the main 
stock. This bottom can be raised or lowered so that 
cutters can be used having one edge higher or lower than 
the edge supported in the main stock, in addition to al- 
lowing the use of cutters of different widths. 

An extra support or stop is necessary for cutters which 
first enter the wood at a point between the outside edges. 
This is also of service when 
using cutters which, if the plane 
were unintentionally tilted, 
would tend to gouge the work. 
The auxiliary bottom, C, cap- 
able of adjustment for width 
and depth, serves this purpose. 

The fence, D, has a lateral screw adjustment for fine 
setting. The fences can be used on either side of the 
plane and the wood guides can be tilted to any angle up 




Fig. 74. 
Angles for Setting 
Fence, Universal Plane 



48 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



to 45°. Fence E can be reversed for center beading 
wide boards. 

In working at a distance from the edge of a board, the 
tendency of the fence to sag is overcome by attaching 
the cam rest shown beside the plane in Fig. 73 to the 
frrmt arm. On certain kinds of work it is attached to the 

rear arm to assist in 
preventing the plane 
from rocking. 

In Fig. 74 are 
shown the different 
angles for setting the 




Fig. 75. 
Word Done by Universal Plane. 



fence, when using 
various cutters, in order that the cutter shall not "run." 
This is of great importance. 

Fig. 75 shows some of the forms which may be 
worked with this plane. 

55. Router Plane. — A very convenient tool for 
smoothing the bottonis of dadoes and enclosed grooves 
across the grain is the router 
plane, Fig. 76. This plane has 
two cutters, V' and ^" respec- 
tively. It also has an attachment 
for regulating the thickness of the 
shaving and closing the throat 
on narrow work. When cutting 
into corners the cutter is reversed 
on the post. 

56. Scraper Plan e. — Scraper 
planes are made in a variety of 
forms. Fig. 77 shows a common form 
which the scraper steel shall rest with reference to the 
work is determined by the horizontal adjusting screw 
and nuts. Cutters are 2J" or 3" in width and the plane 




'ATTACHMNI 

Fic. 76. 



Router Plane. 
The angle at 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



49 



length is 9^\ This tool can be used as a toothing plane 
by inserting the toothing cutter shown in the illustration. 
Toothing cutters are 
used to rough the sur- 
face of the wood pre- 
paratory to laying 
veneer. It is also used 
to scrape off old glue 
and paint. Scraping 
cutters have 22, 28 or 
32 teeth to the inch. 




Fig. 77. Scraper Plane. 



57. Handled Scraper. — Among the various forms of 
holding tools for scraper steels or blades is the one 

shown in Fig. 78. By 
means of a set screw the 
blade mav be 




o-iven a 



curvature similar to that 
Fig. 78. Handled Cabinet Scraper, ^i^^ained when the scraper 

is held in the hands. The handles are W long and 
carry a 2f'' blade. 

58. Veneer Scraper. — T h e 

veneer scraper, Fig. 79, is 
similar in principle and opera- 
tion and use to the scrapers 
just described. • It can be ob- 
tained in two lengths, 6^" and 
9V' v^ith 2" and 3'' blades. Fig. 79. Veneer Scraper. 

59. Core-Box Plane. — The core-box plane, Fig. 80, is 
used by pattern-makers in forming the hollows of cylin- 
drical core-boxes. The sides of .the plane are at right 
angles one to the other. The blade projects below the 
lower arris and can be set so as to cut from either side. 
The plane works upon the principle that only a right 




so 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



angle may be inscribed in a semicircle. From this it fol- 
lows that, if the sides or sections of this plane rest upon 



§)ECTlON5 

-Attached 




Fig. 80. Core-Box Plane. 



Handle- 



GUIDLS- 



the edges of the cut, the cutter must describe a semi- 
circular section. 

Without the additional 
sections this plane will 
form boxes with diameters 
of y to 2i'\ Additional 
sections can be secured 
which make possible core 
boxes with sections up to 
10" in diameter, each pair 
adding 2^" to the diam- 
eter. Tapering core-boxes 




Cutter- 

Fig. 81. 
New Style Core-Box Plane. 



can be formed wuth this plane. 

Fig. 81 is an illustration of a core-box plane in which 
the cutter revolves in a semicircular arc while the plane 
itself moves in a horizontal direction with reference to 
the stock. The manner of using these planes is descri1)ed 
in the chapter on Pattern Making. 





TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 51 

60. Drawing-Knife. — The drawing-knife or draw- 
shave is used to take off quantities of wood too great 
to be planed and too slight 
to be worth saving by 
sawing. It is also used in 
curved work. It is beveled 
on one edge only, Fig. 82. 
The length is determined by the length of the blade and 
varies from 6" to 14'' by even inches. 

61. Expansion Bit. — The expansion bit, Fig. ^Z, is 
made with an adjustable cutter which makes possible 
the boring of holes of various sizes with the same bit. 

A still greater range is 

-^ ^=3 made possible by the 

^'^^ use of other cutters of 

Fig. 83. Expansion Bit. , , i^ 

greater reach. I^or 

small bits, one cutter will give a range of f" to 1|". A 

second cutter gives IJ'' to IJ". Cutters for large bits 

give a range of I'' to If", If' to 3", and 3" to 4". 

62. Nut Augers. — Where greater depths are to be 
bored than can be bored with bits of ordinary length of 
shank, special forms are necessary. Again, where large 
holes are to be bored 
in hard wood it is 
difficult to accom- ga ^ ^^=€00000X9" 

plish the result with ^ o. ^t 

.... Fig. 84. Nut Auger. 

an extension bit, be- 
cause of the small leverage and the fact that only one 
hand is available for turning the crank. Fig. 84 is an 
illustration of a bit especially constructed for this pur- 
pose. The sizes run from ^" to 1" by eighths, and from 
1" to 3" by quarters. The screws are coarse, thus 
making for fast boring. 



52 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




Jaw 5 



Fig. 85. Beveled Gear Corner Brace 
AND Angular Boring Attachment. 



63. Angular Boring 
Attachment. — Special 
braces called "corner 
braces" are made for 
the boring of holes 

c, alons^side walls and in 

Ball and ^ 

6ocKtT Joint corners. 

Fig. 85, shows an at- 
tachment for an ordi- 
nary brace to be nsed 
for such purposes, also 
a bevel geared corner 
brace. 



64. Bit Extension. — This attachment, which can be 
obtained in lengths from 12'' to 30'', will be found neces- 
sary in many places in cabinet work. Fig. 86. 

65. Breast Drill. — The breast drill shown in Fig. 87 is 
what is known as double speed. By shifting the position 
of the handle an even speed, or one to one, is obtained. 



Chuck 



::& 



-JAW5 
Fig. 86. Extension Bit Holder. 



This is the speed to be used with the larger sized drills. 
The first speed is used with small drills and has a ratio 
of three to one. 

A level is attached to the frame to assist the worker 
in maintaining a horizontal position while boring. The 
spindle is kept from turning while changing drills by 
means of a latch mounted on the frame. Different sweeps 
of the crank are obtained by shifting the crank handle 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



53 



into one or another of the three holes in the crank-arm. 
These drills may be secured with a universal chuck which 
will grip either a taper or a round shank. 




Hollow 

HAMDLl 
Cit^NK 

H^NDLE 




Fig. 87. 
Breast Drill. 



Beveled 

GEMIS 

Duck- 

Fig. 88. 
Hand Drill. 



66. Hand-Drill. — The hand-drill is used for the rapid 
drilling of small holes. The one shown in Fig. 88 has a 
removable top, the hollow handle containing an assort- 
ment of small drills of various sizes. 

67. Automatic Hand-Drill.— This tool, Fig. 89, is but 
another form of hand-drill. It is more generally used by 
carpenters than the one just 
described. The hand-drill with 
the gear is used more frequently 
by metal-workers. The auto- 
matic hand-drill is constructed 
so that the drill will revolve rapidly upon the application 
of a downward pressure on the head. The handle con- 
tains compartments with the following sized drills : 11/64" 
5/32", 9/64", 1/8", 7/64", 3/32", 5/64", 1/16". 



-rr 



Fig. 89. Automatic Drill. 



54 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



68. Spiral Screwdriver. — The spiral screwdriver, like 
the automatic hand-drill, is made to revolve rapidly 
upon pressure being exerted on the head or handle. Its 




Fig, 90. Spiral Screvvdriv5r. 



HOUOIN H^NDLE 




advantage lies in the rapidity with which it works. Fig. 
90. The spirals should be kept well lubricated. 

Ratchet screwdrivers, while not so rapid in their action, 
are useful and are preferred to the common screwdriver 
by mechanics. 

69. Awls. — Patent awls are 
in quite common use. Fig. 91 
illustrates one type, with the] 
various points which belong to 
it. 

The brad awl point is wedge- 
shaped, and is used for making 
small holes, as for tacks or 
brads and small screws. The 

scratch, or scribe, awl is pointed and is used mainly for 
locating centers and for scribing or marking on heavy 
bridge or barn timbers where a pencil line would not 

show easily. 

70. Wrecking Bar.— The 
wrecking bar, Fig. 92, is a 
most effective 'tool for dis- 
mantling wooden frames. 
71. Nail Puller.— The nail puller, Fig. 93, is used to 
withdraw nails whose heads have been sunk even with 
or below the surface of the wood. A heavy head which 
is free to be moved up and down on the vertical stem is 



Fig. 91. Patent Awl. 




Fig. 92. 



Qoose-Neck^ 
Wrecking Bar. 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



55 



used to force the jaws into the wood on either side 6i the 
nail head, after which the jaws are closed and the nail 
withdrawn by inclining the head to one side, the pro- 



/MovA5Lt Head 




i^TEEL Wheel i — Fr^ame — Mandls 

=-= — -Wt — 



Fig. 93. Nail Puller 



jecting foot being used as a fulcrum. The wood is mar- 
red, of course, so that the tool can be used only upon 
coarse work, as in opening boxes and on rough carpentry. 

72. Glass Cutter. — The glass cutter can hardly be 
classed as a woodworker's tool but is included here be- 
cause manual training shops frequently make use of it on 
small jobs of glass setting. The cutter shown in Fig. 94 
has a carbonized steel wheel. A straight-edge is held 
firmly upon the glass to be 
cut and this cutter is drawn 
along it with firm, even pres- 
sure sufficient to score the 
surface of the glass so that it will break when bending 
pressure is applied with the hands to the two parts. The 
grooves or notches in the tool serve as jaws to break 
away any particles which fail to break along the desired 
line. 

73. Files and Rasps. — In as much as there are some 
three thousand varieties of files, little more can be done 
here than to indicate the most common characteristics. 

Files dififer from rasps in that the former have serra- 
tions extending obliquely across the tool while in the case 
of rasps the cutting edges are triangular points which 
project from the body of the tool. In either case the 



FLtlilULt- 

FiG. 94. Glass Cutter. 



cutting edges are formed while the tool is hot. 



56 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 57 

A good working principle to follow in the use of wood 
files is : Use files and rasps only where edged tools can- 
not be used to advantage. Rasps and wood files are 
legitimate tools, but their use on the part of beginners is 
often unwarranted. 

When filing, pressure should be placed upon the tool 
only when it is on the forward stroke. To place it 
otherwise is to break the fine cutting edges which are 
buttressed on the forward stroke but not on the backward. 

Files, in general, are distinguished by their (1) length, 
(2) kind or name, (3) and their cut. 

Length is always measured exclusive of the tang. 
Length bears no fixed relation to either the width or 
thickness, even of the same kind of file. 

By kind of file is meant the various shapes and styles. 
Fig. 95 shows cross-sections of various kinds. Not only 
do files vary in cross-section but in general contour or 
shape as well, as taper and blunt. Fig. 96. Taper files 
are such as have the cross-section reduced in width and 
thickness as it approaches the point. The three-square 
handsaw file is often designated simply as a taper file. 
A blunt file is one which preserves the same size of 
section from tang to point. 

As to cut, files are divided according to the character 
of the teeth into single, double, and rasp cut, Fig. 97. In 
single cut the serrations extend obliquely in one direction 
only. In double cut, the single cuts are crossed by a set 
of opposite oblique serrations. The rasp is made by 
triangular indentations in the steel while soft. 

The cut also varies according to the fineness or coarse- 
ness of the serrations. There will be rough, coarse, 
bastard, second cut, smooth, and dead smooth. Fig. 97. 
Coarse and bastard cuts are used upon heavy, rough work. 



58 



WOODWORK UOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



Slim Taper Taper 



Kfl 



Square 
Fig. 96. Files 



Blunt Band 



^<fe<!i-X'^^ 



Mill 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



59 






'lat Bastard 



Half-Round 



K GUI id 






w 




Half-Round 
Wood Rasp 



60 



IVOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



Second cut and smooth are used upon finer work. Rough 
and dead smooth are seldom used. Superfine or supercut 
are terms used by Lancashire file-makers to designate 
dead smooth. 





0'mf", 




%v:. 


»'»' • 


mr _ »' i 


r-* W* 



d MS 


^i^^i 




Fig. 97. The Cuts of Files. 

Among the many special forms of files is the auger-bit 
file, Fig. 98. One end has serrations on the two edges 

f5uRniON5 OM Sides ^ti^tAiioNS on Edges, 



Fig. 98. Auger Bit File. 



only, the other end has serrations on the two surfaces 
only. This is done so that the nibs may be protected 
when filing the lips, and vice versa. 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



61 



74. File Cleaner. — The file cleaner, Fig. 99, is used 
to brush filings from the serrations. One side has stiff 
bristles and the other wire. 




Fig. 99. File Cleaner. 

75. Belt Punch. — Fig. 100 illustrates one form of belt 
punch. By revolving the cylinder four sizes of holes 
may be cut. 




Fig. 100. Belt Punch. 

76. Plug Cutter. — The plug cutter. Fig. 101, is used 

to cut plugs to fit over the 
heads of flat-head screws in 

Fig. 101. Plug Cutter. furniture fastenings. 

77. Screw and Plug Bit. — This tool. Fig. 102, is used 
to prepare a hole where a screw head is to be sunk 




Fig. 102. Screw and Plug Bit. 



below a surface and afterward covered with a wooden 
plug. 

78. Washer Cutter. — The washer cutter, Fig. 103, has 
adjustable cutters. The tool is used in connection with 
a brace. 



02 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



79. Emery Wheel Dresser. — With the rapid introduc- 
tion of electrically fused abrasive grinding wheels in the 
place of grindstones in the wood shop has come the need 



CUTTEIL 



CuTTERi 





Fig. 104. 
Emery Wheel Dresser. 



Fig. 103. Washer Cutter. 



for a dresser. This tool, Fig. 104, has especially hardened 

steel cutters which, when properly held, will cut away the 

high places on the grinding wheel. 

80. Sharpening Auger Bits. — An auger bit is easily 

sharpened; it is as easily spoiled by improper sliarpening. 

Hold the bit as' in Fig. 105. File the inside surfaces of 

the nibs and the under surfaces 
of the lips. 

The most common mistake 
l)eginners make, and a most 
serious one, is to file the nibs 
on the outer surfaces. A little 
consideration will indicate that 
to so file a bit is to make the 
cutting nibs begin a hole the 
diameter of which is less than 
that of the twist, with the re- 
sult that the twist allows the 
cutters of the lips to proceed 
only a short distance into the 
wood when a wedging action 
inhibits further cutting. 




Fig. 105. 

Sharpening an Auger Bit 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 6^ 

In filing the under sides of the lips care must be taken 
to get good clearance, remembering that the lips are 
proceeding downward at a fairly rapid rate. If sufficient 
clearance is not given the back edge of the lips, that part 
nearest and growing into the twist keeps the lips from 
cutting properly. 

81. Forstner Auger Bit. — This bit, Fig. 106, has 
special advantages over the ordinary auger-bit on certain 
kinds of Avork. It has no spur but depends upon an outer 
rim for centering. It is claimed that, on account of this, 



Lips- 

Fig. 106. Forstner Bit. 

knots, cracks, and change of direction in the grain of the 
wood will not affect the boring direction ; that it will not 
split the wood however close the hole may be to an edge ; 
that by means of this rim a hole may be bored where a 
smaller hole has already been bored ; and that oval, ob- 
long, or square holes may be made of a hole already bored. 
To sharpen this bit, take a three cornered file and grind 
its point, not tang, to form a three cornered scraper. 
Scrape the inside of the flange of the cutting rim until 




b. c 

Fig. 107. Sharpening Forstner Bit. 

it is sharp. Use an oil stone to remove the wire edge 
formed on the outside. Fig. 107, a and b. For very smooth 
work see that the flange is drawn beyond the cutters well 
and then oilstone a bevel with clearance. 
5 



64 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



Sometimes a bit will be too hard to scrape and file. In 
such a case a pair of tongs, such as are used in brazing 
band-saws, may be heated and the shank held close to 
the flange. The temper is drawn to a light blue color 
when the bit is to be dipped into water. 

The cutters are filed with a small fine file as in Fig. 
107, c. 

82. Sharpening Saws. — There is but one way to learn 
to sharpen a saw, and that is to make an attempt and 
persevere until the result is accomplished and the habit 
fixed. 



Handle 




>— (oUlDLS 



Fig. 108. Top Jointing a Saw. 



The habits involved are rather complex and most 
beginners do not succeed as readily as in learning some 
of the other processes. Like every other habit, however, 
when once fixed it becomes second nature. 

The first thing is to note whether the teeth project 
evenly or not. If some project farther than others it 
will be necessary to top-joint them. This is accomplished 
by a tool known as a saw jointer, Fig. 108. This tool 
consists of. a short, flat file and a holder which keeps the 
file at right angles to the blade of the saw. 

It is not necessary to top-joint a saw every time it is 
filed. Frequently a saw needs merely ''touching up," 
filing only. 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



65 



One or two ligiit runs the full length of the saw should 
be sufficient to joint the teeth to the same projection, 
ordinarily. If nic^-e than two runs are needed, it is better 
to file the teeth after the first two jointings and then 
joint again and file. A saw in very bad condition may 
require as niany as three filings with intervening jointings 
of two top runs each. 

In jointing a hand or rip-saw, try to joint so as to 
produce a crown in the length of the saw of al)nut one- 
eighth of an inch. 

The second step consists in setting the teeth. Not 
uncommonly the teeth are set before the top-jointing is 
done. The advantages and disadvantages are about equal 
in either case. 

The most common saw-set in use today is the hand 
set. Fi 



109. An adjustable anvil makes possible the 

Gage 5ET-5acw 



Anvil- 



Gage 




setting of saws with small 



l-pLUNGEflSCANDn 

Fig. 109. Saw Set. 



or large teeth to any desired 
amount. A good rule to 
remember in saw-settino- is : 
Give the teeth no more set 
than is absolutely necessary 
for them to do the work required of them. Too much set 
makes w^aste in stock, rough kerfs, unnecessary muscular 
exertion, and difficulty in controling the saw, to say 
nothing of the danger of breaking off the teeth in set- 
ting, especially if the saw is hard tempered. Panel saws, 
tenon saws, and dovetail saws are not, as a rule, set at 
all, the taper of the blade from the toothed edge toward 
the back giving sufficient clearance. Another point to 
be guarded is to see that the anvil is so adjusted that 
the point of the tooth receives the bend rather than the 
whole tooth. If the whole tooth is bent there is danger 
of breaks in the blade at the roots of the teeth. Begin 



66 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



at one end of the saw and set every other tooth, then 
reverse and work the remaining teeth from the opposite 
side. Fig. 110. 

The third step con- 
sists in filing the teeth 
to the' proper angle and 
size. Place the saw in 
the saw vise, Fig. 111. 
Assume an easy 
position so that, as the 
filing proceeds, the 
same angle may be 
maintained. File every 
other tooth, filing those 
with the set pointing 

away from you. Reverse the saw and file the remaining 
teeth. Release the filing pressure on the backward stroke. 
It is a good practice to go over the saw once with a 
uniform pressure, taking the same number of strokes to 




Fig. 110. Setting Saw Teeth. 




Fig. 111. Saw in Saw Clamp. 



each tooth. In going over the teeth from the first side, a 
little of the facet made on the tooth tops by top-jointing 
should be left. In filing from the second side this will 
disappear in the main. Any teeth which still retain the 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



67 



facets may be touched up after the two sides have been 
gone over with a uniform nund)er of strokes to each tooth. 
Most of the cutting- pressure of the file should be against 
the back of the tooth with just enough on the cutting 




Fig. 112. Filing a Rip-saw 



edge to bring it t(^ a sharp arris. Where teeth vary in 
size, a change in the balance of pressure is necessary to 
reduce the large and increase the size of the small, adjacent 
tooth. 

Tf the saw is to 
be used for rip- 
ping, file straight 
across holding the 
file so that it shall 
cause the cutting- 
edge of each tooth 
to make an angle 
of 90° with refer- 
ence to an imagi- 
nary line passing- 
thru the points. Fig. 112. lu soft wood a little more hook, 
or pitch, or rake may be given. A pitch of 90° is quite 




Fig. 113. 
Filing a Crosscut or Handsaw. 



68 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



appropriate, however, where both soft and hard woods 
are to be cut by the same saw. 

The crosscut, or handsaw is more difficult to file 
properly because of the necessity of producing- an angle 
on the cutting edge of other than 90°, as well as requiring 
an inclination of the file to the horizon. Fig. 113 shows 
the angles approximately. These angles will vary with 
the kind of wood to be cut, whether hard or soft, and the 
rapidity with which the work is to be done. Only expe- 
rience will acquaint one with just the proper angles. Fig. 




^c^trrf- f^ 



^^Ezc::? 




UTTING Edge 

GLUTTING EDGL 



Fig. 114. Filing Positions for Crosscut and Rh'-Saw Tekth. 



114 indicates the angles ordinarily used in placing the file 
across the saw blade, top view. Fig. 115 shows two 
different angles, end view, commonly used in filing the 
crosscut-saw, also the effect upon the shape of the teeth. 
Either method is considered good practice ; the second is 
a little more difficult to learn, unless a saw^-clamp similar 
to the one shown in Fig. Ill is made use of. In this 
clamp, a ball-and-socket joint allows the saw blade to be 
inclined so that the file may be carried in a horizontal 
position, and yet have an inclination with reference to 
the side of the blade. 

Where a saw is in fair condition, the beginner will 
find it well to carefully place his file between two teeth 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



69 



and try, hy this means, to determine the angles previously 
used. 

Authorities differ as to whether the file should point 
toward the point of the saw or toward the handle. The 
l)alance of opinion seems to be slightly in favor of those 



^^Q!^, 



'f^ur^ 





Fig. 115. 
Two Angles Commonly Used in Filing Crosscut Saw, 

who advocate holding the point of the file toward the 
point of the saw, filing the back of the tooth on the side 
nearest the worker and the cutting edge of the tooth on 
the farther side at the same time. 

After a saw has been filed, either rip- or crosscut-saw, 
it should be laid flat, as shown in Fig. 116, and an oilstone 

passed over its 
sides lightly once 
or twice to remove 
the wire edges 
produced in filing. 
This operation is 
known as side- 
jointing and 
causes a saw to 
cut somothly. 

Fig. 116. Side Jointing Saw Tooth. Compass, key- 

hole, bow or turn- 
ing saws, etc., must cut both across and along the grain 
of the wood, and are therefore fitted half and half. That 




70 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



is, the teeth are given nearly as much hook as the rip-saw 
while the fleam, or side angle, Fig. 113, is about 80°. 

83. Sharpening Scrapers. — Scrapers may have either 
square or beveled edges. In either case the cutting edge 
is obtained by turning a burr. 

First, grind or 
file the edge to the 
shape desired, 
then drawfile, Fig. 
117. Leave the 
edge slightly 
rounded from end 
to end so that the 
corners shall not 

"dig." Where the scraper is to be held in the fingers or 
where a holder is used in which a screw is eniployed to 
spring the blade slightly, this curved edge is not neces- 
sary. The oilstone may be used to get a still smoother 
arris, the steel being moved as in Fig. 118. 











Uil 




HH 


m 


■■Ik 1 



Fig. 117. Drawfiling a Scraper. 






Fig. 118. Fig. 119. 

Whetting a Scraper. Turning a Scraper Arris with Burnisher 

Next, by means of a burnisher — a smooth piece of 
highly tempered steel — held at the angle shown in Fig. 
119, drawing the tool toward you, turn the arris to the 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



71 



A 



angle A, Fig. 120. The stroke requires a steady, uniform 
pressure without cliange of angle. Now make a stroke 
as indicated at B, Fig. 120. Finally 
make a stroke at C. The extreme 
range is not to be over 15°. Failure to 
secure a cutting burr is most frequently 
caused by turning the burr too far. If 
by chance the burr is turned too far, 
it may be raised by drawing the point 
of the burnisher as in Fig. 121. 

It is not necessary to file the scraper 
every time it becomes dulled. The 
l)urnisher may be used to draw out the 
arris. Fig-. 122, after which it may be 
turned over again in the usual manner. 
For the satisfactory working of a scraper, steel of the 
right temper is necessary — not too hard and not too soft. 
The burnisher must be tempered sufficiently hard that 
the steel will riot cut it. A drop of oil on the burnisher 
will assist. 






Fig. 120. 
Angle of 
Burnisher in 
Turning a Burr 




Fig. 121. Raising Burr on Scraper. 

84. Sharpening Lathe Tools. — The first tool used in 
turning is the large gouge, called the roughing-out tool. 
This tool should be ground by holding it as in Fig. 123 
and moving the handle in the arc indicated thereon. Give 



72 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



the tool as inuch grind or nose as the hollow is deep — a 
wedge of about 30°, Fig. 124. 




Fig. 122. Drawing Out Burr on Scraper. 





f ^ 


I 


-.«#««* 


J 


1 


m 


■ 


^H 




# ' 


m 


^ 


1 


I 


2 


jg 


B 


■■p 


\_^3BH 


m 


^ 


^ 




^ 


n 


IH 


■™B^|p:k 




MPi 


Hr J 


hI 




/ 


'^^ 


'i^^^^^M 


'i^^^mM 




1 


it 


1 




L 


»t^ 


m 



Fig. 123. Grinding a Turner's Gouge. 






Holding Ijoth gouge and whet- 
stone free, whet the bevel until a 
slight cdgG is turned; then, fitting 
the curved surface of the stone to 
tlie inner surface of tlie gouge so 
that no bevel shall be formed there, 
remove the wire edge. 

The small gouge, like the large gouge, is ground with 
a nose equal to the depth of its hollow. There is one 
very important difference however; the small gouge 



Fig. 124. Nose of 

Large Gouge for 

Roughing Off. 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



7Z 



must have its lips ground farther up and around its sides 
and made very thin so as to give clearance when the tool 
is rolled over, as must be in making hollows and half- 
circles, Fig. 125. Fig. 126 shows the difference between 
the roughing gouge and the small gouge. 

Skews should be ground 
with wedges of about 20° 
for soft wood, with a side 



angle of about 70°, 



Fig. 127. 




Fig. 125. 
Small Gouge in Action. 



For hard wood the wedge 
should not be quite so acute. 
In whetting strive to have 
the whetted angle very simi- 
lar to that of the ground. 

The scraping tools should be given wedges of 45°, and 
be ground on one side only, Fig, 128. Scraping tools are 

more efficient when given a 
scraping burr. This is done 
by placing the tool on the 
oilstone in the usual manner, 
bevel down, and then giving 
several firm strokes as in- 
53. This produces a smooth 




LarCE G0U6[ 




\ 



w 



Fic. 



.3mall Goi/f,£ 
126. Showing Shape of 



Large and Small Gouges. 
dicated by the arrows. Fig 
burr different from the serrated edge obtained by whet- 
ting in the usual manner, and one not so easily dulled. 

85. Sharpening Carving Tools. — The principles in- 
volved in sharpening carving tools are the same as are 
involved in sharpening other edged / 

tools, such as the paring chisel and 1 i T-^A ^i 

gouge. It is necessary to have ac- 
cess to grinding wheels and slip 
stones of appropriate forms for the 
tools being sharpened. These forms 
are numerous, and, where carving is 



T 



Fig. 127. 

Small Skew — 

Angle for Soft Wood. 



74 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



L 



Fig. 128. 

BeV]£L on S(K.\1'IN(, 

Tools. 



to be employed involving many kinds of tools, a special 
dealer's catalog slionld be accessible that appropriate 
stones may be selected. 

86. Modeling. — This term is used to apply to the 
method of making objects of such irregular form that the 
judgiiicnt of the worker must be depended upon to give 
the correct result without the aid of gage and knife marks. 
The forming of a canoe paddle or hammer handle is a 
good illustration. 

Generally a little forethought will 
show a way in which the piece of work 
may l^e partly laid out with knife, 
square and rule. To illustrate, take 
the hammer handle, Fig. 129. The 
steps will be as follows : First, prepare 
a face side and a face edge, and square the two ends so 
that the piece shall have the length desired for the 
finished handle. Second, draw a center line on the face 
side, parallel to the face edge, and lay ofif on either side 
of this line two straight lines which shall indicate the 
amount of taper; also sketch in the lines of curvature. 

Plane the two edges to the 
tapering lines and square 
with the face side. Then cut 
to the curved lines, keeping 
the surface also square with 
the face side. In a simHar 
manner lay off on the face 
edge a center line parallel to 
the face side, mark the taper 
and lines of curvature, and 
work these surfaces as in the second step. Third, the 
piece may be laid off still further by drawing on the 
larger end the form of the ellipse which that end is to 




6iG. 129. Steps in Modeling 
A Hammer Handle. 



TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 



75 



assume. With spokeshave, judging the curves of the 
middle with the eye, work out the desired form. The 
steel scraper is to be used for finishing after the spoke- 
shave has done its work. 

87. Glue Pots. — Sometimes a steam glue pot, Fig. 
130, is to be recommended because steam is conveniently 
near. The electric glue pot, 
Fig. 131, is rapidly super- 
seding other types. It con- 
sists of a water jacket, a glue 
pot, and a heating element. 
Such heaters are made to 
give two and three different 
heats, a high heat for heat- 
ing the water quickly, a me- 
dium heat for continuous 
work and a low heat for 
keeping the glue from chill- 




FiG. 130. 
Steam Glue Heater. 



insr. 



88. Surface Table. — Fig. 132 shows one type of iron 
surface table. Such tables are cast with reinforcing ribs 
to prevent warping after the tops have been planed true. 




Fig. 131. 
Electric Glue Heater. 



Fig. 132. Plane Table. 



The legs are adjustable for height. Tables such as this 
will be found helpful for a great variety of work, such 
as quick testing of surfaces for wind, scribing table or 
chair legs for uniform rest, etc. 



CHAPTER III. 

Woodworking Machines. 

89. Introductory. — The fact that certain woodwork- 
ing machines are described herein should not be taken by 
the student as evidence that he is at liberty to make use 
of such machines should they be a part of the shop equip- 
ment. Woodworking machines are, of all machines, 
among the most dangerous. The consequences of care- 
lessness or ignorance may result in lifelong injuries of a 
most serious nature. Some of the machines, such as the 
lathe, band-saw or scroll-saw and trimmer may be safely 
used after instructions, by large classes, when properly 
safeguarded. Other machines such as the jointer, the 
circular saw, surfacer, boring machine, mortiser, etc., 
should be used only by students in classes of such size 
that careful instruction and constant oversight may be 
given by the teacher. Other machines, such as the 
tenoner, shaper, etc., are described that the student may 
have information of a more extended nature about wood- 
working methods, but they are not recommended for 
student use except under special arrangement. 

In vocational and trade schools, with ample time for 
careful instruction, and under favorable conditions, such 
restrictions may not apply, tho the danger is none the less 
real. "Safety first" should at all times be the first con- 
sideration. 

Manufacturers wdio have made a careful study of ac- 
cidents which occur in factories have found that, while 
safety devices will not often times ])revent accidents, they 
at all times serve as reminders of the need for care. 

76 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 77 

90. Order of Procedure in the Use of Machines. — The 

order of procedure in the use of the various machines in 
the squaring- of stock to dimensions, and the relation of 
this work to that done with hand tools is indicated in the 
following table. 

Squaring Up Stock 

By Hand Tools By Machines 

1. — First operation, getting out stock to convenient 

working sizes — 

Hand saws Swinging cut-off saw 

2. — Preparing face side and face edge — 

Hand plane Hand planer or jointer 

3. — Working to thickness — 

Gage and hand plane Surfacer or planer 

4. — Working to width — 

Gage and rip-saw Circular rip-saw 

5. — Reducing to exact width — 

Hand plane Jointer 

6. — Squaring one end — 

Try-square and saw Circular crosscut-saw 

7. — Securing length — 

Rule, try-square, saw Circular crosscut-saw 



In the use of such machines, face sides and face edges 
are to be kept against the table tops or the fences or both. 
The presence of graduated scales on the machine saw and 
on the planer or surfacer makes the use of the marking 
gage unnecessary. The presence of fences which may be 
set to predetermined angles makes the use of the try- 
square imnecessary as a means of laying out and testing. 

In ripping to width on a machine, about yV" is allowed 
for planing. This is removed by means of the jointer. 



7S> 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



91. Swing Cut-Off Saw. — As this machine comes first 
in the operations with woodworking machines, it will be 
described first. 

When stock is taken to this saw to be cut it is always 
in long- lengths. If the saw w^ere stationary as are other 
types of cnt-off saws, the operation of pushing the long 
board past the saw would be found very awkw^ard. The 



COUNTEHWEIGHT 



Hollow Ar.m 




Hanger, 
Adjustments 

■counter,shaft 
Tight and Loose 
Pulleys 



GUAUD 

MANDHELoft 
AUbOR. ^ '' " ' " ■ ' 

5aw 



EAdlNGS 
^TA5LE 

-Pneumatic Pulley 



Hand Hold oil Handle 



Fig. 133. Swing Cut-Off Saw. 

operation of cutting up a long board is made easier by 
making a stationary saw table on which the board may 
lie, and swinging the saw in such a manner that it may 
be moved thru the board. Fig. 133. 

The heavy frame or arm, as shown in the illustration, 
altho weighing several hundred pounds, is always hollow. 
The shaft and pulleys, which are supported at the top of 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



79 



the arm, serve as countershaft for the machine, one of 
the small pulleys being tight and the other loose, the 
large pulley carrying the belt which drives the saw arbor. 
On this make of machine a pneumatic pulley will be 
found upon the saw arbor. This type of pulley gives 
clinging power to the belt, the grooves preventing "air 
pockets" from forming between belt and pulley, and is 
used on other high-speed machines as well. 

Swing saws are made to swing from a wall, Fig. 134, 
as well as from a ceiling, a modified type of hanger 
bracket being used. 

If a swing saw were to be hung from either ceiling or 
side wall without the counter 
weight, Fig, 133, the heavy frame 
would hang in a vertical position. 
As this would tend to throw the 
saw over the board and in the way 
when not in use, a heavy weight is 
attached to the frame on a system 
of lever arms so adjusted as to 
throw the saw back and out of the 
way when not being pulled forward by the operator. 

When not in use the lower edge of the saw rests just 
back and below the table on which the work is lying. To 
maintain this relative position of saw and table where 
different sized saws are made use of, or in first adjust- 
ments of the machine to its table, or where successive 
filings have reduced the size of the saw, some adjustment 
must be possible. This adjustment on this machine is in 
the hangers, and by means of it the whole frame may be 
moved vertically about 6 inches. 

Such saws should be provided with a guard similar to 
the one shown in the illustration. Such a guard should 
hang well down and over the saw. 




Fig. 134. Swing Cut-Off 
Saw Wall Hangers. 



80 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

Such saws on light factory work are usually \6" in 
diameter and are run at a speed of 2,400 R. P. M., re- 
quiring about three H. P for the fairly heavy work it can 
do. 

92. Operating a Swing Cut-Off Saw.— (1) On the 
saw table, which is generally 12 feet long, will be found 
a scale graduated into feet, inches and quarter-inches. 
By means of this scale, place the board for a cut of the 
required length. Since the cutting is for rough lengths 
only, a quarter-inch scale is of sufficient accuracy. (2) 
As the saw runs or revolves toward the operator, it has a 
tendency to eat into the stock. In pulling the saw to- 
ward him, the operator should hold his arm lightly rigid 
so that he may resist a sudden thrust toward himself. 
Owing to this tendency of the saw to eat into the stock, 
a beginner will usually pull the saw into the stock so 
rapidly, at the first attempt, as to choke the saw, that is, 
the saw will stop, the belts slipping. In such a situation 
the operator should maintain control, pushing the saw 
back until the belts may regain their driving speed. A 
second attempt ought to meet with success, provided the 
first has indicated the error in manipulating the machine. 

93. Hand Planer or Jointer. — The hand planer or 
jointer. Fig. 135, takes the place of the hand plane, and in 
most cases is second in line of machine operations. This 
machine is to be used in preparing a face side and a face 
edge. When a board is properly fed on such a machine 
its broad surface can 1)e taken out of wind and made true, 
and the first edge can be made straight as to its length, 
and square to the face side. Jointers range in size from 
6'' to 24'' and are run at a speed of al)out 4,000 R. P. M. 

94. *'Setting-Up" a Hand Planer or Jointer; Adjust- 
ments. — The jointer is perhaps the most difficult of all 
machines for the beginner to learn to operate because it 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



81 



takes the most delicate adjustments. The most common 
difficulty is that of securing the proper adjustment of the 
two beds or tables, one with reference to the other, and 
each with reference to the knives. 

Were the two beds and the knives adjusted to have the 
same level, there would be no chance for a cut. By 
lowering the front bed l:)elow the level of the knives, a 
cut is made possible, the amount of cut depending upon 
the amount of drop of this table or bed. The rear bed 



Fence— 
[-Rf AR. 5ed or. Out-Feed TAE.LEr-CuTTER.-HEAD 

_ ^^^ Ji>^EELLlR3 



rFflONT- &ED 
rADJU5TllslG HANoWHEfL 




(Iear--5ed 
Adjustment 

5having5 
Chute — ' 



Fig. 135. Hand Planer or Jointer. 

is intended to carry the stock after it has been cut and 
for this reason should be allowed to remain on the same 
level as that of the knives at their highest point of 
revolution. 

If the operator is in doubt as to whether the machine 
is set up properly for straight work, the first thing is to 
determine whether the rear bed is at exactly the same 
level as that of the cutting edge of a knife when in its 
highest position. This can be determined by taking a 
scrap piece of stock and running it over the knives a few 
inches. As the newly-cut surface passes over the rear bed 



82 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



there should 1)e no space showing- between the stock and 
the bed, Fig. 136. 

If this bed is a trifle too high (1/100" is sufficient to 

cause trouble), the re- 
sult will be a slight 
raising of the stock as 
it is pushed forward, so 
that a board, tho its 
width were uniform at 
the beginning of the 
operation, w^ould not be 
Fig. 136. Showing Rear Table afterward. A cut might 

Setting of Jointer. j^^gj^^ ^^.j^l, a ^jepth of 

:J" and end with tV^'^ due to the fact that the rear table 
was slightly higher than the knives. Fig. 137. Uniformit}- 
of width in stock can be maintained only 1)y taking a uni- 
form cut the full length of the stock. 

Suppose the rear bed were too low. As the freshly 
cut surface ])assed over the rear table, light would show 
between it and the table. This would mean lliat the 




Tmg. 137. Effect of High Rear Tarle on Jointer. 



Fig. 138. Effect of Low Rear Table on Jointer. 

stock was resting upon the front table only. As the 
stock passed forward it w^ould reach a place where its 
fore end would dro]) until it rested on the rear ta1)le, 
producing- a crook in the edge. As the rear end of the 
stock passed over the knives, dropping from the front 
table, a notch would be cut from it as shown in J^g. 138. 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



83 



The remedy, obviously, is to raise the rear bed to the 
level of the cutting edge of the knives. 

The rear table is raised or lowered only for special 
set-ups, such as tapering, chamfering and a few other 
operations. For all straight jointing the relative positions 
of beds and knives will be as stated. In Fig. 135 will be 
noticed an adjustment on the side of the machine just bc- 




FiG. 139. Cutter Heads. 



low the rear or out-feed table. Occasionally a rear table 
may have its surface out of parallel with the front. This 
adjustment is used to correct such an error. Such lack of 
adjustment would cause a convex or a concave cut to be 
made. When this adjustment has been set so that the 

rear table is parallel to the front one, 
it is set securelv and left so, there be- 
I ino- seldom anv occasion for chans:- 
ing it, unless, perhaps, thru wear 
caused by long use of the machine. 
95. Cutter Heads: Set-Up and 
Fitment of Knives. — In Fig. 139, 
cross-sections of two types of heads 
are shown. The older type is so dangerous that it is 
being universally supplanted by the newer type, the cir- 
cular or safety head. In this newer type the head and 
its shaft are turned from a solid steel forging. The 
knives are made of thin air-hardened Tungsten steel, 
and are held in position by set-screws pressing against 
a block or blocks of steel which, in turn, hold . the 
knives. Fig. 140. Such safety heads, should the fingers 




A Safety Head. 
Fig. 140. 



84 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



by accident l)e i)ressed upon them, will clip off the 
flesh painfully. This, however, is not to be compared to 
the result of such a movement on the old type, the loss 

of the fine^ers beinof a 
usual sequence. 

In setting knives in a 
head it is necessary for 
smooth work that the cut- 
ting edges shall be uni- 
formly set with reference 
to their circumferential 
move m e n t. Fig. 141 
shows two methods of 
testing knives for proper 
projection. In addition to 
Fig. 141. Testing Jointer Knives this, the latest types of 
FOR Position. machines are provided 

with jointing devices which make possible a practically 
perfect setting of the cutting edges, Fig. 142. Such a 
jointing device consists of a piece of emery so placed 




"-^JACKlAbLE 



^^pFEED For. Emek-V 



MERV 



that it may be moved along 
the knives as they are revolved 
at a slow speed. This attach- 
ment is also used in securing 
the first setting of the knives. 
The two steel rolls. Fig. 143, 
indicate the proper setting, the 
knife edges being placed so that 
they just touch these. It is 
needless to say that the most 
painstaking and careful effort 
is required on such work. Carelessness, such as the 
leaving of some of the set-screws of the cylinder head 
loose can mean but serious disaster to the machine if not 




Fig. 142. Jointer for 
Hand Planers. 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



85 



to the worker. A second "look" all about is imperative on 
all such work before throwing on the power. 
It is possible on some 



machines to secure an 



^ 



electric grinder which 



l^iii 



«£31J 



m 



-6teelIIoller,5 — ' 
Fig. 143. Jointing and Setting At- 
tachment FOR Hand Planers 
and Surfacers. 



can be attached 'to the 
same bar used in set- 
ting-up and jointing the 
knives, Fig. 144. Such 
emery wheels are disc-shaped and the mechanism adjust- 
able for depth. Such jointing and grinding attachments 
may be used upon surfacers as w^ell as upon jointers. 




Fig. 144. Electric Grinder for Hand Planers or Surfacers. 

96. Operation of a Hand Planer or Jointer. — As the 

depth of the cut is determined by the distance the stock 

is below the knives 
when it is in position to 
be fed over the in-feed 
table, the first thing for 
the operator to do is to 
determine whether the 
machine is set to give 
the amount of cut his 
work requires. On all 
modern jointers where 
the fence is attached to 
the rear table, one can see at a glance at just what depth 
the machine is set to cut. The amount of opening be- 
tween the lower edge of the fence and the in-feed table 




Fig. 145. Depth Gage for Jointer. 



86 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



indicates the depth of cut, x, Fig. 135. Some machines 
have depth gage or thickness scale fastened to the fence, 
Fig. 145. 

AVhen a piece of stock is placed on the in-feed table 
to be surfaced it is usually rough and irregular and in 
wind. x\s it passes over the knives a new surface is 
formed and this new surface slides over onto the out-feed 




Fig. 146. Jointing a Surface. Fig. 147. Jointing an Edge. 



table. It is very essential that the stock be held down 
tightly on this rear table so that the remainder of the 
cutting may give a surface which shall lie in the same 
plane as that first cut. Just as soon as the stock has a 
good bearing on the rear table, all the weight and at- 
tention of the operator should be placed upon it at that 
point, the stock being pulled over the 
knives rather than pushed. Figs. 146 
and 147 show the proper position. Fig. 

148 shows a device which will be found -n c 

Planing Springy 

handy in planing springy narrow stock. Narrow Stock. 
Fig. 149 shows the manner of using it. 

If a piece of stock has been ripped to 4^'' and is to be 
jointed to a width of 4'', the jointer should be set to take 
a y cut and the stock run thru. It is considered poor 




WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



87 




Fig. 



149. Manner of Using 
Planing Device. 



practice to make two or more cuts for this or smaller 

cuts. 

Short stock should not be run over a jointer. Stock 

shorter than 10'' should not be machine jointed by a 

beginner ; it is a dangerous 
proceeding. 

The planing of long 
tapers is accomplished by 
varying the relative posi- 
tions of the tallies with 
reference to the planer 
knives, as is indicated by 
Fig. 137. 

For planing short 
tapers, as on the bottoms 
of furniture posts, a block 

of scrap stock is placed under the top or back end of the 

post at such a relative position as to raise the rear end 

of the post to the angle of inclination wanted for the 

taper. The post is then run thru in this inclined position, 

l)Ottom end first. Such an operation requires skill on the 

part of the operator. 
97. Jointer Guard. 

— A jointer should 

never be run without 

a guard. The best 

guard is the one 

which covers the 

knives completely at 

all times and is least 

cumbersome. Guards 

may be had which compel the operator to pass all flat 

stock under it, Fig. 150. When edge stock is run, the 

guard is pulled back just far enough to let the stock 




ILL 



Fig. 150. Jointer Guard in Place. 



88 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



or 



surfa 



cer as 



pass tlini edgewise between the fence and the end of the 
guard. A weight or a spring serves to push the end of 
the guard up to the fence, once the stock has passed thru, 
on certain types of guards. 

98. Planer or Surfacer. — The pkuicr 
it is generally called, Fig. 
152, is the machine which re- 
duces the stock to thickness. 
It will not remove wind, as 
beginners sometimes think. 
The jointer or hand planer 
must be used to prepare the 
first surface, after which the 
surfacer is to be used to 
plane the reverse surface and 
the stock to required thick- 
ness. 
Cylinder, DRIVING Pulley 




Fig. 151. 



Guard [ItNicviP faow Jointer. 
Jointer Guard 
Removed. 




66ALE 

BELT Shifter, FOfi 
Feed r.oll& 

Drive FOR FEED R0LL5 



Table ADJU5T- 

MENT6HAFT 
AND CRANK'' 



CORRUGATED FEED ROLL 

IGHT6FOR5HAVINGBilEAKEIl 
5PfllNG5 FOR- FEFD 

ROLL Pressure 



6M00TH Feed ROLLS 



Fig. 152, Planer or Surfacer. 



While this machine is comparatively easy to manipu- 
late, it requires careful study before its adjustments can 
be mastered. 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



89 



Most planers arc dou1)le belted, that is, the driving 
is done thru a belt at each end of the cylinder. Belt 
shifters should be near the operator's position so that the 
machine may be quickly stopped should anything go 
wrong. It should be noted that the belt and gears that 
drive the feed rolls are entirely separate from the belt 
which drives the cutter head. This is so arranged that 
the feed rolls may be stopped instantly in case of accident, 
while the momentum of the cylinder would keep it run- 
ning for perhaps a minute after its power is shut off. 
The lever which governs the feed rolls may be seen at 
the front and left of the machine in Fig. 152. 

Some surfacers for large factories are made with 
double cylinders so that both sides of a board may be 
planed at one operation. 

From 4 to 7 H. P. are required, and the speed of the 
cylinder should be 
about 4,200 to 5,000 
R. P. M. 

The construction 
of the cutting or cyl- 
inder head is similar 
to that of the jointer, 
either square or cir- 
cular, the circular 
superseding the square. 

Some machines are fitted with sectional feed rolls. Fig. 
153, which consist of small vetrical sections placed on an 
eccentric center so as to admit different thicknesses of 
stock under each section. The purpose of such a feed 
roll is to prevent pieces of slightly thinner stock from 
being kicked backward out of the machine, endangering 
the worker, should he happen to be standing in front of 
the in-feed at the time. Each section is composed of an 




Fig. 153. Sectional Feed Rolls. 



90 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

outer ring which encloses four radial sections, each 
carrying a helical spring. These springs permit a vertical 
variation of i^^", if required. With such a feed roll a 
sectional chip breaker is used. 

Smoothness of cut, other things being equal, depends 
upon the feed. Feeds, like cylinder speeds and machine 
sizes, depend upon the particular make of machine. With 
a cylinder speed of 5,000 R. P. M. a machine may have 
feeds of 16', 21', 27' and 33' per minute, or more. Soft 
woods may be run with a feed of 75' per minute, if 
desired. Cheaper machines will have fewer variations in 
feed, possibly only one feed as 24' per minute for a cyl- 
inder speed of 4,500 R. P. M. Manufacturers .furnish 
such data with their machines. Sizes will vary from 20" 
to 42", and even greater, with a capacity for planing stock 
7" to 8" thick. A good machine will plane stock as thin 
as -J", or even ^V"- 

99. Operation of a Surfacer. — Taken for granted that 
the wind has been taken out of the first surface upon the 
hand surfacer, the operations required to reduce to thick- 
ness are as follows : On the front of the franic will be 
found a scale and near it a handle or hand wheel. This 
handle is to be used to move the table up or down as 
required, the index and scale indicating the amount. It 
will be noted that in the surfacer the knives and 
revolving cylinder are above the work; in the jointer they 
were below. On the jointer, the surface to be cut is 
placed down ; on the surfacer this is reversed, the surface 
to be cut being turned up with the face side down. De- 
termine the setting of the machine for the first cut by 
measuring the stock at the thickest place. Set the 
machine by means of the scale just mentioned. The 
amount of cut will be determined by the hardness or 
softness of the wood and the width of cut, and, to a 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



91 



certain extent, by the rate of feed. Too deep a cut will 
stall the machine, causing the feed belts to slip and the 
feed rolls to stop. In such a case the machine would best 
be stopped and the depth of cut decreased, the feed being 
thrown off until the cylinder can "pick up its load" again. 
A good operator learns to know by the sound of his 
machine when the load or feed is too heavy, and either 
throws off the feed promptly until the knives can pick 




Fig. 154. Fekdtng a Si^rfacer. 



up speed again, or, if the machine still fails to find relief 
after one or two such reliefs, decreases the cut by lower- 
ing the table slightly. In general jV'' will be a sufficient 
cut, for a beginner, where a machine is in good condition. 
The stock must be run thru successively until the proper 
thickness is obtained. Where a number of pieces are to 
be planed, the thickest is planed first, .the others being 
added in turn as soon as their thickness permits. 

As the stock is pushed forward on the table, Fig. 154, 
(1) the first thing to act on it is the corrugated feed roll. 



92 



WOODWORK- FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



This revolves in such a direction that the stock is pulled 
into the machine. This roll, like the smooth feed rolls, 
is held down by means of weights or by heavy springs 
attached to each end of the roll. (2) After leaving this roll 
the stock proceeds a few inches when it comes in contact 
with the chip breaker. Fig. 155. This chip breaker serves 
the planer knives just as the chip breaker or cap-iron 
serves the hand planes. It, too, is held down on the 
board by w^eights or springs and is so attached that it 
moves concentric with reference to the knives and cyl- 
inder. (v3) Next the stock encounters the cylinder knives 
revolving as shown in Fig. 155. The shavings are car- 
ried up and thrown out as shown. (4) Leaving the 
knives, the stock passes under a back pressure bar the 
purpose of which is to hold the stock down firmly while 
the knives do their work. It is regulated by springs and 
must be adjusted 
so that the stock 
as it leaves the 
knives may pass 
accurately under- 
neath it. On 
some machines 
the distance be- Smooth Peed Rais 
tween this back 
pressure bar and 
the chip 1)reaker pressure bar is but 1|". As stock must 
1)e held firmly by feed roll and pressure bar, an attempt 
to run stock which is not at least several inches longer 
than the distance between feed roll and pressure bar will 
prove futile if not disastrous. (5) The stock next passes 
between the two rear feed rolls, designed to pull it thru 
after the first set of rolls have ceased to work upon it. 
While a surfacer is not a very dangerous machine to 



5aCK PllE3SUKt 5a 

a. 



^""^•^^NXVCHIP-bflEAKEIl PflE55URi 5aR- 

Weight 
iiii\UGATED Teed Roi l 

Feed Roll 





ilAAM 

Piece of Stock- 
Fig. 155. Skction Thru a Surfacer. 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 93 

operate, the operator should not stand directly back of, 
and in line with, stock being planed, nor should he make 
a practice of stooping down and looking into the throat 
of the machine unless he stands well to one side. Pieces 
of stock are often kicked backward out of the machine 
with great force. The sectional or flexible feed roll with 
its chip breaker redwces this danger. 

100. Adjustments on Surfacer. — Feed rolls once ad- 
justed seldom require new adjustment except thru wear. 
The action of their adjusting devices will be evident upon 
inspection. Table rolls should be carried no higher than 
is absolutely necessary to secure a bearing for the passing 
stock. The corrugated roll should have no more pressure 
than is needed to cause it to move the stock. The rear 
roll will be hung with reference to the knives, as also is 
the corrugated roll, and adjusted with no more pressure 
than will insure transmission of the required moving- 
power. Detailed instructions are usually provided by the 
manufacturers. 

Adjustment of planer knives is a frequent requirement. 
The old style square head is so little used in modern 
shops that little attention is given it here. Modern 
machines are provided with adjusting devices such as 
that shown in Fig. 143, so that setting up of knives be- 
comes a comparatively easy matter. This device is 
operated just as for the jointer. The bar remains a part 
of the machine on a surfacer, being merely swung up and 
back out of the way. The two rollers at either end of 
the bar assist in the setting, and the emery joints the 
knives to uniform cutting positions when properly set. 

On the old style, the worker must determine his knife 
settings by placing parallel blocks on the table under the 
cylinder, adjusting the knives as best he can. Experience 
makes for proficiency but the results are not to be com- 



94 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



pared with planing where the jointing device is available. 

101. Circular Saws. — Possibly the circular saw can 

be used for as great a variety of purposes in a shop as 



Cut-off Guide.5 

CR.055CUT-5AW 



WouM Geah- 

AR-BOIL- 
fllP-5AW 



Fr-AME 




ilip-5AW Fence 



-TAbLE 



Tilting- Quadrant 



Handwheel for. 
PiAbiNG AND Lowe a.- 
ing5aws 



CuAdD 

6pUTT£/R; 



Fig. 156. Universal Circular Saw Table. 

any other machine ; it is also about as dangerous as any 
other, unless well guarded, with the possible exception of 
the shaper and tenoning machine. Among the attach- 
ments which may be placed 
upon the saw arbor are the fol- 
lowing: circular, rip- and 
crosscut-saws, gaining heads, 
grooving saws, and even mold- 
ing tools. 

Saws are made in two 
different styles — the universal 
or double arbor machine. Fig. 
156, and the single arbor 
machine, Fig. 157. 

The universal saw is com- 
posed of the following principal 
parts: (1) frame of cast iron 
cast iron planed true on its top surface. The right-hand 
side or section is stationary but the left is on rollers so 




Fig. 157. Single Arbor 
Circular Saw. 

(2) table, which is of 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 95 

that it may be moved backward and forward with the 
stock being- cut, if desired. When not so used a stop 
under the table holds it in position ; (3) a ripping fence 
so arranged as to be adjustable from side to side that 
different widths of stock may be cut (a graduated scale 
on the table top assists in setting this fence) ; (4) two 
crosscut guides or miter cut-ofif gages which can be ad- 
justed to any angle with reference to the saw; (5) tilting 
quadrant which makes possible the tilting of the table 
top from a level position to an angle of 45° ; (6) raising 
and lowering device by means of which the arbors may be 
made to revolve, bringing either the crosscut- or the 
rip-saw above the table to any desired height up to the 
limit of the saw ; (7) two arbors, one carrying a crosscut- 
and the other a rip-saw ; (8) the saws one of which can 
be quickly revolved into position by a hand wheel. 

The single arbor saw may be changed from a rip- to 
a crosscut-saw by raising the table and changing the saw, 
a matter of releasing a nut, changing saws and replacing 
the same, the nut being turned counter clockwise to 
tighten. 

The cutting or rim speed of a circular saw should be 
approximately 9,000 feet per minute. Too high a speed 
will cause a saw to heat and buckle and run badly. A 
saw, on the other hand, will not run well at too low a 
speed. Heating of a saw at the center may be caused by 
lack of sufficient set in the teeth. If at the rim, it may 
be due to the fact that the backs of the teeth are too 
high for the points. 

The speed of the arbor of a 10'' to 14'' saw will be 
about 3,000 R. P. M. About 5 H. P. is required. 

Every machine should be guarded just as far as is 
possible. Fig. 158 shows a good type of guard for the 
circular saw. The follower is a good thing in that it 
7 



96 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



prevents the operator from reaching under the guard at 
the back in an efifort to remove sawed stock or waste. 

102. Operation of Universal Saw. — The simplest op- 
eration is that of ripping stock to a required width. (1) 
See that the rolling 
section is set so that it 
will not move back- 
ward or forward by 
setting the stop, Fig. 
159. Also see that the 
table is clamped so that 
it cannot move laterally, 
by fastening the clamp 
under the table near 
the stop controlling the 
backward and forward 
movement. This lateral 
adjustment is used 
when it is desired to 

remove a saw from its arbor, or when it is desired to 
make use of a wide grooving or dado head. (2) Release 
the clamp on the ripping fence and set the fence by means 




5av/du5T Exhau5T Pipe- 
Fig. 158. Saw Guards. 




lAfcLE Clamp- 
Fig. 159. Table Adjustments. 



)HAFTClAMP 

-Tilting Index 

-^TOP 



of tlic scale to the required width of stock. Make the 
final adjustment 1)y means of the micrometer adjustment 
after setting up ihc main clamp. This universal ripping 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



97 



fence may be used on either side of the saw. By means 
of the quick adjustment a variation of about 12" is 
possible. Where greater width than this is wanted it can 
be got by moving the locating pins of the fence to a 
second set of holes in the table. The fence may be 
moved backward or forward on the table, parallel to the 
saw, 9". The face of the fence may be adjusted with 
reference to the table top from 90° to 45°. (3) By means 
of the hand wheel at the back of the machine, raise the 




Fig. 160. Ripping Narrow Stock. 



rip-saw above the table to a height but slightly greater 
than the thickness of the stock to be ripped. Notice the 
tilting index to see that it is as it should be. The machine 
is now ready for the power. 

A circular saw, being a very dangerous machine, will 
require the closest of attention at all times. This is 
especially true upon such work as requires the removal 
of the safety guard, as in tenon work. The operator 
should stand up close to his machine and far enough to 



98 



WOODWORK FOR SllCONDARY SCHOOLS. 



the left of the stock he is ripping so that, should the 
stock be dropped on the saw or get thrown up so that 
the saw teeth catch it, he will not be in line with the 
tiying piece. A saw will throw any piece of wood dropped 
upon it, or which may get upon it thru loose manipula- 
tion, with great violence. The operator should keep to 
one side of his stock. 




Fic. 161. RipPiNc; Beveled Edge Stock. 

A second danger, already hinted at, is that caused 1:>y 
carrying the saw high above the stock being ripped. A 
i" piece of stock need have but \" of saw projection above 
the table. 

Fig. 160 shows how stock is to be handled where the 
space between saw and fence is close. The stick has a 
V-notch in the end against the stock to prevent its slip- 
ping off. 

A saw when used f(^r ripping can and slmuld ha\-e a 
euard over it. 



li 



^- 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



99 



Fig. 161 shows the tilted table, the hand-wheel at the 
side of the machine 1)eing nsed for this; with the fence 
on the movable section. 

In cntting stock to length, the miter cnt-off gage, Fig. 
162, is nsed. This gage has a groove into which may be 
fixed a stop rod, 
either 18'' or 36" in 
length. The machine 
is set np as pre- 
V i o n s 1 y described, 
bnt with the cross- 
cnt-saw ont and the 
rolling table released. The stock is placed against the 
stop and the gage, and the roller section with stock 
sho^'ed forward. The stop, Fig. 162, is set for short 




Fig. 162. Miter Cut-Off Gage. 




Fig. 163. Sawing Simple Miters. 



stock the end of which will rest against the pin. For 
long stock the rod is turned end for end and the stop 
with thumbscrew made use of. 

'Figs. 163 and 164 show cut-off gages set ready for cut- 
ting stock at miters, simple and compound. They give 
ranges from 30° to 135°, 



100 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



Fig. 165 shows a universal miter gage. These gages, 
two in number, operate in grooves in the table top, made 
by the removal of steel strips used for filling when uni- 
versal gages are not in use. These cut from 30° to 150°. 




Fig. 164. Sawing Compound Miters. 



Tt is possible to cut stock to length using the ripping 
fence as a stop. To obviate the binding of the stock 
between saw and fence with danger of a kick-back, a 

metal clearance block is provided to 
be attached to the fence. Fig. 166. 
The stock is placed with its end 
against this to get its position 
for the saw. Upon pushing the 
table and stock forward the end of 
the stock is freed of the metal block, 
thus giving clearance between fence 
and saw for the cut off part. 

103. Cutting Tenons with Universal Saw. — The uni- 
versal saw may be used in cutting tenons. (1) Place the 
cut-off guide for a square cut. (2) Release the roller 




Fig. 165. Universal 
Miter Gage. 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



101 



section. (3) Place the ripping fence and attach the metal 
clearance block. (4) Adjust the fence for the length of 




Fig. 166. 
Using the Clearance Block — First Step in Sawing Tenons. 

tenon required, considering the location of the saw kerf. 
(5) Raise the crosscut-saw the amount required to cut 
the depth of shoulder for the tenon. Clamp the shaft of 




Fig. 167. Sawing Tenon — Second End. 



the hand-wheel just used in raising the saw so that it 
shall not move. (6) Run thru all members taking this 



102 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

depth of cut. (7) If necessary, reset the saw for the 
shoulder cuts or kerfs on the edges of the stock. 

(8) The next step consists in cutting the shoulders of 
the reverse ends. It is essential that the lengths shall be 
determined from the end first used against the ripping 
fence. Draw the ripping fence 1)ack out of the way and 
place the stop as in Fig. 167. Place the stock with the 
kerfed ends against this stop and run the other ends over 
the saw as before. Where care has been taken to secure 
uniform length on all pieces, and that should 1)e the aim, 
it will be safe to work the second ends against the ripping 
fence as in the first case. 

(9) Releasing the clamp on the hand-wheel shaft, 
draw up the rip-saw to the height required to cut the 
cheeks to the kerfs made in crosscutting. It is the part of 
wisdom to test a machine setting by means of a piece of 
scrap stock before running a piece of final stock thru. It 
is hardly possible otherwise to determine just how the 
saw or other tool will cut. (10) Adjust the ripping 
fence with reference to the proposed cheek on the face 
side, that is, so that the saw shall cut properly when the 
face side of the piece is next to the fence. Fig. 168. (11) 
Run the second end thru before laying this piece aside, 
provided this second end is tenoned as the first. (12) 
Reset the fence after all like parts have been run thru, 
so that the second kerf will cut properly when the face 
side is against the fence. (13) Run thru as before. It 
is a more economical way to keej) a supply of steel 
washers on hand and an extra saw. Place both saws on 
the arbor with enough washers between to give the 
proper thickness of tenon. The set of the saws must be 
taken into account. If one wishes a •^'' tenon he will 
have to separate the saws about V\ the extra y being 
the amount of set on the two saws. 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 103 

In cutting with the single saw, it is possible to work 
with other than the face side against the fence, in case 
the stock is sufficiently uniform to give the necessary 




Fig. 168. Sawing Tknon, 



accuracy of tenon. The general rule is to keep face side 
or face Q(\gQ against the fence or table top whenever 
possible, and to work from the same end of the stock as 
far as possible. 

104. Cutting Wedges on a Cir- 
cular Saw. — A great variety of 
work can be done on a circular 




saw involving some very difficult 
set-ups. Fig. 169 makes clear the 
manner of getting out wedges in 
large numbers easily. 

105. Kerfing a Cove for Molding or Core-Box 



Femce/' 



Fig. 169. 
Sawing Wedges. 



■Fii 



170 shows one method of kerfing a core-box. The block 
is run over the saw successively, the saw being raised at 



104 



WOODWORK FOR SECOXDARY SCHOOLS. 



the various heights as shown l)y the kerfs. After such 
kerfing it is an easy matter to rout out the thin stock and 
finish the bottom of the curve smooth. A core-box plane, 
Fig. 81, w^ould be used to give the final cuts. 

A second method whereby the hollow 
may be approximately formed on the saw 
is as fellows: (1) Draw a square which 
shall represent the saw table, Fig. 171. (2) 
Draw the line a-b which shall represent 



6aW K'Lfl.F.S 



the saw position with reference to the ^'^^'- ^^'^- ^^'-i-^'" ^'^"' 
table. (3) From the center o, on this 
line, draw a circle just the size of the saw it is ex])ccted 
to use. (4) From the top of the circle, wdiich represents 
the cutting edge of the saw, measure down the distance 
X, the depth of the core-box groove. 'Draw the line c-d, 
which represents the top surface of the saw table, the 
segment abo\e re]3resenting the cross- 
section of the core-box hollow or 
groove. (5) The points y and z locate 
themselves on the drawing. The dis- 
tance between these points as repre- 
sented on the saw table drawing is not, 
however, the distance between the same 
letters on the core-box drawing. It re- 
mains to lay ofif two parallel lines, as 
e-f and g-h which shall be apart the 
distance y-z of the core-box, in this 
Fig. 171. Cutting case f''. The angle z so determined is 
Core Box on Uni- ^j^^ ^^^^.j^ ^^ ^^.j^i^.j^ ^^, ^^.^ ^1^^, ripping 

VKRSAL Saw Table. , ^ . . . . .i t% 

lence with reierence to the saw. It 

the machine at hand does not have an adjustable fence, 
the same result may be obtained by clamping a straight- 
edge in position, using hand clamps. (6) Lower the saw 
entirely below the table top. (7) Raise it about Vu'' 




WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



105 




Fig. 172. Tablp: to Determine Saw Setting for Cutting 

Miters. 



(By courtesy of the Oliver Machinery Co.) 



106 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

above and run the core-box stock over, along the fence. 
(8) Raise the saw another yV" ^"d run the piece thru. 
Continue in this manner until the space x is secured. 

106. Table for Set-Up of Universal Saw for Com- 
pound Miters. — Fig. 172 ilhistrates a table for deter- 
mining the saw setting for cutting miters for square, 
hexagonal and octagonal box sides, for the tilting saw 
table. 

Example: To find how to set the table and cut-off 
gage to make a square l)Ox with the sides tilted 25°, first 
find the curve marked, "curve for square box." Follow 
along this curve until you find the mark 25. Then find 
how far to the right of the zero point this intersection 
marked 25 is and you will find it to be 39° 59'. It will he 
necessary to guess at the minutes. This means that the 
saw table must be tilted thru 39° 59'. Next note that the 
intersection is 23° 5' above the zero point on the gage 
graduation line, which indicates that the gage should l)e 
set 23° 5' from its normal position. This will produce 
the correct cut for the desired box or pyramid. 

The same method applies to the hexagonal and octa- 
gonal boxes. The curves, altho having the general curve 
of a circle, are not true circles. 

107. Grooving and Dado or Gaining Heads for Uni- 
versal Saw. — Fig. 173 a, b, c, d, are examples of several 
types of heads which may be attached to a universal saw 
for use in cutting dados or grooves. In cutting grooves 
the ripping fence will be used while in cutting dados 
the cut-off fence will be made use of. The roller section 
of the top will be adjusted laterally to make room for the 
increased thickness of saw or head. Fig. 173-a is a 
grooving head which is simple in construction. It may 
be ground either straight or hollow, and may be obtained 
in sizes varying by tV''. Fig. 173-b illustrates a different 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



107 



type of groover head. The body is cast iron and is 
furnished with pairs of knives of various widths. The 
scoring points serve to break the grain of the wood just 
ahead of the knife and thus produce a smooth cut on the 
sides of the groove. Fig. 173-c illustrates an expansion 
gaining head, very similar in principle to that just de- 




FiG. 173. Grooving and Gaining Heads for Universal Saw. 

scribed. The outer faces carry the scoring spurs while 
the knives or cutters of appropriate width are clamped 
between. The outside collar is omitted when this cutter 
is used on the saw arbor, this cutter being intended for 
use on other machines as well. Fig. 173-d illustrates a 
popular type of groover head. It consists of two outside 
and three inside cutters 
and will cut grooves from 
^" to f" wide. Cuts may 
be varied by iV or by -J", 
the addition or omission 
of cutters making varia- 
tions possible. This cut- 
ter will cut across the 
grain as well as along it. 
Note the shapes of the teeth. 

108. Circular Miter Saws. — When it is necessary to 
secure very smooth surfaces, as in miter work, special 
saws are made use of. Fig. 174 shows two types of saws 
used for this purpose. • These saws are not given any set, 
the taper grinding, as indicated in the cross-section being 




Fig. 174. 
Sections of Miter Saws. 



108 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



% mch Tooth 



sufficient to give clearance. The second type has a 
combination of teeth making- it more suited for both rip- 
ping and crosscut sawing. 

109. Fitting and Filing Circular Saws. — As the rip- 
saw is the easier to file, it is treated first, as a rule. The 

file used is generally a 10'', round- 
edge flat file. It is essential that a 
round edged file be used as the 
square edges cause sharp corners 
which may develop into cracks at 
the bottom of the gullet of the tooth. 
Most circular saws are filed at 
quarter pitch, that is, the bottom or 




Fig. 175. 
Quarter- Pitch Tooth. 



cutting surface of the tooth is hooked 



back so that if a line indicating its direction were to be 
drawn across the saw, it would pass thru a point on the 
diameter of the saw \ the diametral distance from the 
edge, Fig. 175. This angle may be varied slightly, of 
course. 

(1) Set the teeth by placing 
the saw on a setting stake. Fig. 
176. The amount of set will be 
determined by the kind of work 
to be done. Familiarity with 
the fitting of hand- and rip- 
saws, which is taken for 
granted, should give one some 
idea as to the proper amount ^^^ 
here. After the saw is centered 
on the stake with the tooth hung over the anvil to give 
the desired set, the hammer hung on the spring is tapped 
with a machinist's hammer. The weight of the stroke 
nuist be determined by experiment. As in the hand-saws, 
it is the point of the tooth which is to be set rather than 




176. Setting Stake for 
Circular Saws. 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



109 



the whole tooth to the gullet. (2) After about every 
third filing", a saw should be jointed. This consists in 
placing the saw on its arbor, or mandrel, with the teeth 
projecting very slightly above the table, causing it to 




Fig. 177. Jointing Circular Saw Teeth. 

revolve at low^ speed, and then pushing a block of emery 
gently against the teeth, Fig. 177. Repeat until all the 
teeth project uniformly. (3) After a saw has been filed 




Fig. 178. Gumming Circular Saw. 

many times the teeth become too short to do their work 
well. The process of grinding out the gullets is called 
"gumming." Gumming is done by holding the saw suc- 
cessively against an emery-wheel of proper bevel, Fig. 178. 



no 



IVOODJVORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



Care must be taken not to burn the saw teeth. A light 
touch against the emery, and that for a short interval, is 
all that is permissable at any one time. (4) The next 
operation is filing. Fig. 179 shows an adjustable cir- 
cular filing vise. It should be adjusted to a vertical 
position for rip-saw filing. File the 
toj) of the tooth with the set pointing 
away from you until it comes to a 
point, holding the handle end just a 
little low, about five degrees to the 
horizontal plane thru the part being 
filed. Touch up the bottom of the 
tooth slightly with the file square 
across. File every other tooth in this 
manner, then reverse the saw and re- 
peat on the remaining teeth. 

The operations just described apply to the crosscut- 
saw as w^ell, except the filing. In filing a crosscut-, cir- 
cular saw an 8^' or 10" three-cornered, or three-square, file 




Fig. 179. 
Adjustable Cir- 
cular Saw Filing 

VlSK. 




:>3FT Wood 



Hard Wood 




Fig. 180. Circular Crosscut and Rip-Saw Teeth. 



is used. The shape of tooth should be similar to that of 
a hand-saw for the same kind of work, and the result is 
secured 1)\- inclining the file similarly. Fig. 180 illustrates 
the shape of teeth adx'iscd. 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



Ill 



110. The Band-Saw. — The band-saw is not a dan- 
i2;eroiis machine when properly guarded. Figs. 181 and 182 
show a typical form of band-saw with parts named. 
While the adjustments may vary slightly, they are in the 
main, similar to those shown. 

The saws used vary in size, the smaller being used for 
the cutting of small and sharp curves. The saw is placed 
on the two wheels. The upper wheel is adjustable ver- 
tically, so that saws of different lengths may be placed, 
and given the proper 
tension. Another ad- 
justment makes pos- 
sible the tilting of Wood Guard 
this wheel so that the coil SpfiiNG 
blade shall "track" counter Ealanci 
on the upper wheel. 
Once this is adjusted 
it seldom needs at- ^^^^^^^ 
tention. 
are 

. r.. ....... BOAR,D BEAHING 



The tables- handwheel for 
1 1 Table adju6tment 

usually so 



mounted that they 
may be inclined, an 
index showing the 




•Saw Tension 
Spuing Within 

-Babbit &ear,ing 
upper. 5haft 

Wood Guard 
ilting Device to 
Make 5aw Track 



— Belt Shifter. 



Tight AND LOOSE PUELEY6 



Fig. 181. 



^OlL WELLS 

Band Saw. 



amount of inclina- 
tion. An adjustable 

guide post counterbalanced by spring or weight, serves to 
guide the blade, yet allow it to move freely. 

The main, or lower, shaft is usually constructed to be 
fed by felt wicks from an oil well just below, and will 
liave a speed ordinarily of about 500 R. P. M. with a 
.surface speed of saw of about 3,000' per minute. 

111. Operation of a Band-Saw. — (1) Use as heavy a 
blade as the nature of the work will allow. (2) Make 
certain that everything is as it should be before starting 



112 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



the machine. Twirl the wheels to see that the saw 
tracks properly. See that the saw runs in the guides, 
freely revolving the roller just after the work has been 
applied to the saw. (3) Adjust the guide-post so that 
the guides shall rest as close to the work as possible 
and the working line be kept visible. (4) Press the 
stock against the saw no faster than will give an easy 
cutting movement, and in cutting curves turn the stock 
with sufficient care that the saw may follow without 



Wheels 



auxiliahy ta5le 
Belt Shifteh- 



GUARDS— 




-R.U55EII E)AND5 



HanDWHEEL fOU 

Tension Adjustnaent 
GuDES & Rollers 

^Throm 



-Table 
-INDEX Dial 



Fig. 182. Band Saw with Guards. 



being twisted. If a curve is so abrupt it cannot be sawed 
without continual "backing up" to secure a new kerf, 
cither a narrowed saw is needed, or more set in the saw 
l:)eing used. The more set a saw has the easier it will 
allow the stock to be turned but the rougher the cut. 
Tn withdrawing stock in order to change the kerf, or for 
any other reason, the student must watch that he does 
not inad\'ertantly draw the saw off the wheels. It is 
considered safer and easier, where one wishes to withdraw 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



113 



stock from a band- or jig-saw before the saw has cut its 
way out, to turn the stock and cut out thru the waste, 







Fig. 183. Cutting Out. 

rather than to try to withdraw the stock from the saw, 
Fig. 183. In this as in all other machinery the belt should 
be shifted slowly, giving 
the machine time to speed 
up. Some band-saws have 
ripping fences which may 
be attached to the table, 
Fig. 184. 

112. Resawing Attach- 
ment for Band-Saw. Since 
stock is not sawed in 
thicknesses less than 1" 
at a mill, it becomes 
necessary when thinner 
stock is wanted to resaw the thicker sizes. Fig. 185 
shows a resawing attachment which may be fastened to 
the larger sizes of band-saws, the 36'' size. Power feed 




Fig. 184. Ripping Fence on 
Band-Saw. 



il4 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



is made possible thru a connection with the lower feed 
shaft of the band-saw. Stock 4" thick by 12'' wide may 
be sawed with such an attachment at a rate of 12' per 
minute. • 

Where no resawing attachment is at hand, the follow- 
ing procedure may be 
adopted. In fact, it is a 
more satisfactory method 
than the other unless the 
band-saw is in excellent 
condition. Unless a band- 
saw is in excellent con- 
dition it will "run" in 
spite of the attachment : 
plank is to be resawed. 




'OWEK 



Hats • 
Micrometer. 

ADJl'STf^ENT 



Fig. 185. Resaw Attachment for 



Band-Saw 



(1) Suppose a 12" l)oard or 
Run it over the circular saw 
with the saw raised as high as it will go — perhaps 4". 
(2) Turn the board over and saw from the other edge 
leaving 4" of uncut stock at the middle. (3) Take the 
board to the band-sav/ and cut this part ; the circular saw 

kerfs help to guide the blade 
of the band-saw. 

113. Filing and Fitting a 
Band-Saw.— Fig. 186 shows 
the general shape of band- 
saw teeth, also their proper 
location with reference to the 
saw guides. Fig. 187 shows 
a filing and fitting outfit con- 
taining an automatic saw- 
setting machine and a hand filing clamp. Outfits can be 
purchased in which all of the setting, filing and fitting- 
are done automatically. This machine sets two teeth at a 
time. By the turning of the hand Avheel two steel 
hammers are made to strike the teeth at the same time 




Fig. 186. Band-Saw 
AND Saw Guides. 



IVOODjrORKING MACHINES. 



115 



— one from one side, and the other from the other side. 
The face of the hammer can be adjusted to any desired 
radial position, so as to produce much or Httle set. As 
soon as the hammers have done their work on these two 



-Hammers 



Whem 

ad.ju.3tment- 



Fig. 187. Automatic Band-Saw Filing and Fitting Outfit. 

teeth the pall automatically pushes forward into position 

two more teeth. The arm which feeds the saw can be 

adjusted to suit any number of teeth per inch. The frame 

is adjustable so that saws of different lengths may be 

placed upon it; the Avheels may be adjusted vertically. 

The filing- vise is adjusted by three clamps. In filing, 

a 6'' blunt band-saw 

O 

3, 




file is used and the 




Fig. 188. 
Brazing Clamp for Band-saws. 



teeth are given some- 
what more hook, or 
rake than hand-saws, 
with slight side angle 
so that the saw may 
cut readily both as a 
rip- and as a cross- 
cut-saw. All the filing is done from one side and the file 
must be held level or the saw will ''run" to one side 
badly when in use. 

114. Brazing Small Band-Saws. — When a band-saw 
breaks from any cause the broken ends must be united. 
This is called brazing. 



116 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



Among the most common causes of breakage are feed- 
ing work too quickly, turning stock on the table faster 
than the saw can follow, forcing a dull saw, starting and 
stopping the machine with light blades suddenly and 
running a saw with a lumpy and improperly finished 
braze. 

(1) By means of a file, scarf the broken parts to in- 
clude one or two teeth ; make the scarf no longer than 
necessary. For :|" to f" saws take one tooth and for 
larger saws two teeth. (2) Place the parts in the clamp, 
Fig. 188, and adjust so that the edges line up properly 

and the lap fits prop- 
erly. (3) Place a thin 
coating of fresh borax 
paste on the scarfed 
parts for flux. (4) Cut 
and place between the 
scarfed parts a thin 
piece of silver solder of 
a size equal to that of 
the joint. (5) Heat a 
pair of tongs to a bright 
red. (6) Scrape off the scale from the jaws so that a 
good, flat bearing may be obtained. (7) Clamp the 
tongs to the scarfed parts as shown. The tongs shoukl 
be held in place until the solder has melted thoroly, and 
until the color of the tongs has changed thru a dull red 
to a black. If the tongs are removed too soon the joint 
will chill before the solder has had time to set. AVhcn 
haste is necessary, two pairs of tongs may be used. The 
bright red ones being removed as soon as the solder has 
melted and these followed by a pair heated to a dull red. 

Brazing is also done by means of the l)lo\v torch. Fig. 
189. Brass solder or spelter may be used instead of 




Fig. 189. 
Brazing with Blow Torch. 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



117 



Air Pump 



Upper- 



EK15ia4 5PR1NG5 



■TEN6I0N Strap 



silver solder. Silver solder is more expensive. It comes 
in sheets. Brass spelter comes in odd shaped forms like 
shot. Place a small piece of brass solder on top of the 
joint and wrap a small flexible wire about the solder and 
joint. Over the whole put the borax paste flux. The 
flame from the torch is applied as in Fig. 189 until the 
solder -has melted. Next file off the roughness and fit 
the teeth which need it. 

115. The Scroll Sav\^.— The 
scroll or jig-saw, Fig. 190, is levers 
used for such curved sawing as 
requires inside cutting. To ac- 
complish this a hole is bored 
thru the stock, the saw blade is qS&heao 
released at its upper end and 
passed thru this hole and then 
fastened again to the tension 
strap. 

Adjustable springs provide 
tension suited to blades of var- 
ious sizes. A blower attached 
to the moving levers provides 
air to keep sawdust off the 
work so that the line may be ^^^- ^'^^ ^^^^^^^ "^ Jig-Saw. 
easily seen. A foot lever makes 

possible the turning on and off of power and braking the 
momentum, with hands free for table work. The crank 
wheel will have a speed of about 825 to 1,000 R. P. M. 
One to 2 H. P. will be required to run the machine. 

In using this machine the guides and stop must be 
carried as near the stock as possible. The saw must have 
its blade placed to cut on the downward stroke, teeth 
pointing downward. 




qds^heai 



QANK WHEEL; 



Graduated 
Rdcklr- 



5rme 



POOT 
G3NTROL 



118 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



116. Boring Machine. — Boring machines, Figs. 191 
and 192, are made with either vertical or horizontal 
spindles, or with both. The machine shown in Fig. 191 
is a vertical spindle niachine with either hand or foot 
control. The table is adjustable so that holes may l)e 
bored at an}' angle with reference to the surface of the 
stock. This table is adjustable vertically by means of 
the hand wdieel. By means of step cones, three speeds 



Three oTEP Con' 

UrPEKDRNIhiG 6HArT-{_|^ 

Hollow CDLUWM- 
gounter. 5haft 
Driving Conc — 




-Depth 5top Gollmi 

4iAND control 



■5PINDLE & CHUCK. 
ACUUSTABLE 5T0P 

-fENa 



— TA5LE 
-POCKER. t 
■5WIVEL PLATE5 

■J|/ERJICALTAbLE 
ADJUSTING HAND WHEEI 



■Foot Control 

bELT .SllimNG LEVER 



-G\WOd WAY6 

Fig. 191. X'i-rtical Spindle Borinc; Machini:. 

are obtainable, the greatest for use with small bits, etc. 
Speeds of spindle on this machine are 1,750, 2,240 and 
3,000 R. P. M. Two H. P. is required. 

The fence may be adjusted to any position on the 
table, and is provided with a stop which prevents the 
stock from being lifted from the table when the l)it is 
allowed to raise. 

These machines arc usually provided with a set of bits, 
five in number, varying from Y' to f. Fig. 193 shows 
three other tools w^hich may be used in this machine. 
The first, a fillet cutter, is used by pattern-makers in 
forming fillets on patterns. Fig. 193-b is a core-box 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



119 




wn 



cutter and Avill be found exceedingly helpful in cutting 
any type of core-box, straight or curved. . Fig. 193-c is 
to be used in routing flat grooves, either straight or 
curved, such as stair stringer gains, etc. These cutters 
may be had in sizes ranging from ^" to 2", or 3" in the 
case of core-box cutters. 

117. Operation of a Bor- 
ing Machine. — (1) Set a bit 
of the required size in the 
chuck, turning the spindle to 
see that the spur centers 
properly. (2) Adjust the 
belt for speed, slow speed for 
large diameter of bit, etc. 

(3) Adjust the table to the 
angle required and set the 
fence so that the bit may 
center on the stock properly. 

(4) Adjust the table ver- 
t i c a 1 1 y to an approximate 
position. (5) Set the depth 
stop for the depth of hole re- 
quired. An easy way to do 
this is to place the stock on 
the table and draw the bit 
down, by means of the foot 
control, along side the end of 
stock, an amount required to give the depth as indicated 
by a mark previously made on the end of the stock by 
rule and pencil. With the bit so held, adjust the depth 
stop. (6) Power to move the spindle vertically may 
be applied by hand or foot. 

118. Mortiser. — The hollow chisel mortiser, Fig. 194, 
is a machine in which the cutting mechanism is a bit with 



Fig. 192. 
Post Boring Machine. 



120 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



especially designed lips which project below and just 
beyond the edges of a hollow chisel. The bit clears the 
way, the chisel following closely and forming stjuare 
corners. By moving the stock along the fence and mak- 
ing successive insertions of the bit and chisel, a mortise 
of any desired length may be completely formed. This 
machine is not dangerous but it requires thoughtful set- 
ting up that it may not be damaged. Chisels of various 
sizes are furnished. 

Three H. P. is required, and the countershaft runs 

with a speed of 900 R. P. M., 
giving the bit a speed of 3,500 
to 4,000 R. P. M. 

Balanced pulleys make pos- 
sible a transfer of power from 
a horizontal countershaft to a 
vertical spindle. These pulleys 
run on adjustable shafts. 

In setting up this machine, 
(1) the proper bit and corres- 
ponding chisel are selected 
along with the proper bushings. 
(2) The spindle is revolved until the set-screw at x can 
be reached with a wrench provided for that purpose. (3) 
The set-screw is withdrawn sufficiently to allow the 
bushing of bit to enter the boring mandrel. At the same 
time the bushing of the chisel is inserted in the chisel 
mandrel. A screwdriver may be used to assist in work- 
ing the parts to position. By placing bushing, chisel and 
bit in position, one with reference to another, before in- 
sertion, adjustments may be easier made. The set-screw 
at X must pass thru the boring bushing and rest firmly 
against the flatted part of the bit shank. Beginners 
frequently fail to enter the set-screw properly, resulting 




Fig. 193. 
A — Fillet Cutter. 
B — Core-Box Cutter. 
C — Flat Groover. 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



121 



in a damaged bushing-, or, if the screw fails to rest upon 
the flatted shank of the bit, in a failure of the bit to bore. 
(4) The chisel is held in place by the set-screw at y. (5) 
To set the chisel square, the fence may be drawn forward 
until it rests against the chisel. A trial upon a piece of 
scrap stock will indicate further necessary adjustments. 
The cutting lips of bit should not be forced against the 

-Spindle 

^bALANCED Pulleys 



Hollow Chlsll 



UTtflAL TA&LE 

Adjustment 



O&LIQUE ADJL)5TMENT- 



GiF^LD Ways 



fOOT CONTROl 



fPOT 





Odllar, 
^-Vertjcal Depth Adjustment 

COLINTEHSKAn C 



FflAKAE 



\ 


/ 






/ \l 



Fig. 194. Vertical Hollow Chisel Mortiser. 

chisel edges in the set-up, but a space of yV to yV" should 
be allowed that the bit may -not be pressed against the 
chisel causing it to heat. 

119. Operation of Hollow Chisel Mortiser.^-With 
the chisel of proper size in place, (1) lay off on the end 
of the s.tock, or on a piece of scrap of the same size, the 
depth of mortise wanted. (2) With the foot push the 
pedal to the floor and hold it there. (3) With the crank 
at the right of the machine, raise or lower the table until 



122 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



it has the position it should have when the chisel is at 
the bottom of the mortise, as indicated by the markinq- 
on the end of the stock placed against the chisel. (4) 
Adjust the vertical stop at the right of the machine so 
that the table may not drop any lower than is required to 
free the chisel from the mortise safely. (5) By means 

of the lateral adjust- 
ment, set the table 
to give the proper 
lateral mortise loca- 
tion. Remember that 
the face side or face 
edge of the stock to 
be worked is to rest 
against the fence. 
(6) Adjust the stops 
which keep the stock 
from being raised 
from the ta1:)le. and 
the stops which de- 
termine length posi- 
tion, if these arc 
needed. 

In operating, push 
the foot control io 
the lloor, Fig. 195. 
If the weight of the 
table is not sufficient to release the chisel, a touch on the 
foot release Avill be sufficient. 

In removing the bit, always return the set screw that 
it may not be broken off thru someone's carelessly turn- 
ing on of the power. 

The compound table, Fig. 194 (inserted cut), dift'ers 
from the plain table in that the stock is clamped to the 




Fig. 195. Operating Vertical Hollow 
Chisel Mortiser. 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



123 



table, and table and stock are rolled along from side to 
side for successive cuttings by means of a handwheel. 

120. Tenoner. — A tenoner, Fig. 196, is a machine 
which, because of its dangers to the operator and the fact 
that most school tenoning may be done with sufficient 
rapidity on the circular saw, is little used in manual 
training shops. That the student may know the pos- 
sibilities of such a machine, a drawing of that machine 



Roller EtAHiNG 

— CAR-R-I/vGE 




Fig. 196. Tenoning Machine. 



is shown herewith. Its use is not recommended except 
where much duplicate work is required. The machine is 
quite complicated and must be set up with accuracy or 
the results will be unsatisfactory. It has two heads, one 
below the other, with the stock moving between on a 
roller-bearing carriage. On these heads are bolted two 
or four cutters or knives. Spur cutters to score the wood 
ahead of the knives are bolted to these heads as shown. 

The stock to be tenoned is laid on the table or carriage 
and clamped down by the rod as shown in the illustration. 



124 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



The carriage is pushed forward carrying the stock be- 
tween the cutter heads. The spurs precede the knives 
and form the shoulders of the tenon. The knives on the 
heads take off the material from the sides or cheeks of the 
tenon. These two heads run in opposite directions. 

There is also a small vertical head farther back on the 
machine. This is called a cope head. If the shoulder of 
a tenon is not to stand at right angles to the face side, or 
if it must be cut or coped to fit a molding on another 
member, this head is used. The cutting of tenons for 
common house doors illustrates the use of the coping 



6PINDLE ,COLLAR-S , CUTTERi. 




-POOT GONTdOL 

FiG. 197. Shaper. 

head of the tenonino- machine. Tenoners, like most other 
woodworking machines, are made in many different 
styles. They may have one or two main cutter heads, 
with one or two cope heads or without either. They may 
be constructed to cut tenons on both ends at the same 
time. 

The cutters arc bolted on the heads so that they shall 
stand out at about 40" to the side of the head so as to 
produce as much of a shear cut as possil)le. The upper 
spindle frame has lateral adjustment for the purpose of 
making shoulders of tenon out of line if desired. Both 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



125 



cutter heads may be adjusted up or down at the same 
time by means of the upper handwheel. The lower hand- 
wheel adjusts the distance between the heads. 

Two H. P. is required to run such a machine and the 
speed of the main countershaft is 950 R. P. M., with cope 
head running at 1,266 R. P. M. 

121. The Shaper. — The shaper, Fig. 197, is considered 
the most dangerous of all woodworking machines and 
should not be operated except by a careful, competent 
])erson who has been taught its dangers as well as its 
])ossibilities. 

The niachine consists of one or two vertical spindles 
over each of which two 
collars are placed. 
These two collars have 
in their flat sides V- 
shaped grooves, Fig. 
198, into which pieces 
of steel are placed 
which have been 
ground to the shape or 
form of the cut which 
is to be made. The angle included in this V-shape in the 
collars is 60°, this having been adopted as standard. 

The shaper is a very high speed machine the spindle 
running from 4,500 to 6,500 R. P. M. Two H. P. is 
ordinarily required. 

Fig. 197 is an example of a single-spindle machine. 
The double-spindle machines have two spindles made to 
revolve in opposite directions so that the operator may 
quickly change from one to the other as the change in 
the directions of the grain of the wood he is working 
requires. This is quite a convenience in collar work. 
Single-spindle shapers are made with a reversing of 




Fig. 198. 
Shaper Collars and Cutters. 



126 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



spindle, accomplished by a peculiar form of friction coun- 
tershaft as shown in the illustration. By means of a foot 
control the operator can throw the driving shaft against 
_ one or the other of the disks which will 

cause the shaft to revolve in opposite 
directions. The handwheel makes 
possible the raising or lowering of the 
spindle mechanism as desired. 

A shaper, of all machines, should be 
3 run with a guard, even by the most 
competent workman. Among the var- 
ious guards made for shapers is the one 
shown in Fig. 199. 

122. The Lathe. — The size of a speed lathe is deter- 
mined by the largest diameter of the stock it will turn 




Fig. 199. 
Shaper Guard. 



Hanger 
Cone: pullly-i 
Dr,ip Cup 
Shifting Lever, 

Belt- 
Cap 
Box 
Hfad-stock- 

CoNE Pulley 



5HIFTIN6 F0RK5 



Tight and Loose Pulleys 




Dead or.Cup Center. 
Tail Spindle 
5PINDLE Clamp 

-Tail-stock 
Tail-stock Clamp 
Ways orSheahs 



Fig. 2(H). L.\the — Counti:rsh.\ft Overhead, 



and the maximum length between centers. Lathes are 
constructed in a number of different forms. Some have 
the countershaft overhead, Fig. 200; others have it under, 
and a part of, the lathe, Fig. 201 ; while others are motor 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



127 



Taper. Bronzc Ring Oiler Boxes 



Drjving 
Pulley 




Fig. 201. Under Driven Lathe. 



driven either from the headstock, Fig. 202, or from a 
bracket below it. The various parts and their relative 
positions are shown in Fig. 200. The headstock on most 
all lathes supports a 
hollow spindle — live 
spindle, so called, be- 
cause it revolves. A 
rod is inserted thru 
this hollow when it 
is desired to knock 
out the live or spur 
center, that a face- 
plate may be at- 
tached, or for any 
other reason. The bearings on all first-class lathes are 
constructed to adjust to take up wear, the device differing 
somewhat upon different lathes. The tail spindle sup- 
ports the dead center or cup center. A detailed descrip- 
tion of the manner of placing stock in the lathe is to be 

^ „ ^ . „ found in the chapter on 

Tool Po5T — , tGompound Swivel Rest ^ 

"Tapeh Feed Wood-Turnmg. 

The countershaft of a 
lathe will run at 500 to 
700 R. P. M., giving a 
lathe speed of 700 to 3,000 
R. P. M., depending upon 
the size of the lathe. The 
10'' or 12" lathe will 
usually have variations 
from 700 to 3,000 R. P. M. The proper speeds to use 
are explained in the chapter on Wood-Turning. 

Lathes in constant use should be oiled every day by 
each user. Adjustments of parts to prevent heating or 
to take up end play should be made only with permission 



HBAD-5T0CK 




Fig. 202. 
Motor Head Driven Lathe. 



128 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



of the instructor, who will inspect such adjustments be- 
fore power is applied. These cautions apply to beginners. 
The lathe is usually the first machine a beginner is per- 
mitted to use. 

123. Sanders. — The sanding machine is not often 
found in any but trade schools and manufacturing shops. 
It is made in several different forms, as drum, belt, 
disc and spindle sanders. Sometimes a sander is com- 
posed of several of these forms. 

The drum sander, Fig. 203, is a very complicated 



Stock,- 



Papek no. 2- 



6 i 6 A6 i 



Feed Kolls 

bHUSM 




Papek no Ion 72 
Paper no, V/i 



Fig. 203. Sectional View of Drum Sander. 



machine and is suited to flat work where large quantities 
of stock must be handled. 

The sandpaper on such a machine is arranged on three 
horizontal drums about 12 inches in diameter, suspended 
below^ the bed of the machine somewhat after the fashion 
of the jointer head. Above the bed is a system of feed 
rolls which may be raised or lowered to take in stock of 
dift'erent thicknesses. As the stock enters, it comes in 
contact with drum No. 1. This drum carries No. 2 sand- 
paper. This paper, being coarse, grinds off the roughness 
very fast but leaves a scratched surface. Next comes 
drum No. 2 which carries No. H paper. This leaves the 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



\29 



surface a little smoother but still not suited for final finish. 
Drum No. 3 carries No. 1, or finer, sandpaper which 
polishes off all the scratches and leaves the surface rea"dy 
for the application of a finish. As the stock leaves the 
machine small rotary brushes remove all dust and 
particles of sand which may have collected. 

The three drums are so arranged as to oscillate, move 
endwise, about f" each, assisting still further to produce 
a smooth surface, by preventing scratches on cross rails 
of stock. 




rt\NDWHEEL roi\ VeHTOL ACUUSTMENT- 

Fig. 204 



Belt Sander. 



The drums should run at 800 R. P. M. on an average 
size of machine and will require from 6 to 15 H. P. 

124. The Belt Sander. — Belt sanders are made in a 
variety of forms. Fig. 204 illustrates one type. It con- 
sists of two pulleys arranged at any desired distance 
apart which carry the sanded belt. Weighted idler pul- 
leys make possible the drawing down of the sanded belt. 
Below the belt is a table adjustable vertically. This table 
top also moves transversely. Stock is placed upon this 
table and the sanded belt is pressed against it by means 
of the hand block. 



130 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



Belts for such machines are made of canvas upon 
which the sand is placed in the process of manufacture. 
It is known as garnet cloth, and comes in rolls 150' long 
by 14"' or 28" wide. This cloth may be ripped to any 

desired length or width. 
The speed of such a 
belt is generally about 
2,200 feet per minute. 
Little power is required 
to run such a machine, 
not over 2 H. P. 
Belt Splicing Die for Sander. The student should 

understand that such 
machines as this are not intended as planers. They are 
for final smoothing just as is hand sandpapering. 

The belt for a sanding machine may be lapped and 
glued to make it continuous, or it may be joined by means 



lyisismis 




mmm 



Fig. 205. 



.Spindle S^NDEfl^ 



COl!MTEfl5HArT 



Di5c5and[::r. 




i Vv I! 1 ATOilSHAFl^ 



Fig. 206. Spindle and Disc Sander. 

of a joint made with a belt splicing die as shown in Fig. 
205. When lapped and glued the sand should be removed 
from the inner half of the lap about IJ" by means of hot 
water. Clamps applied as in gluing a leather belt will 
hold the parts. 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



131 



Knives 



Guide ok, 
-Fence 



Pilot Wheel 



125. Disc and Spindle Sander. — Fig. 206 illustrates 
one of the many types of disc or spindle sanders. Ir- 
regular work is sanded upon such machines, spindles of 
several sizes being provided to suit the curvature of the 
work. The disc is made of glued-up hardwood strips and 
covered with heavy Brussels carpet. A wrought-iron 
band around the edge holds the paper to the disc. The 
vertical spindle has an oscillating movement vertically to 
give smooth work and bring 
all the paper in contact with 
the work. The disc will run 
at about 700 R. P. M. and the 
spindle at 1,200 R. P. M. 
The table of the disc is ad- 
justable so that beveled work 
may be sanded. Two H. P. 
is required. 

126. The Trimmer. — The 
trimmer is one of that class 
of mechanical contrivances 
which stands midway be- 
tween the bench tool and the 
power machine. Fig. 207 
shows a popular style of 
trimmer. This tool is used 
mainly by pattern-makers. 

Beginners are inclined to abuse this machine by taking 
cuts too heavy for the mechanism. If hard wood is being 
cut there should never be taken ofif more than -^q'^ at a 
time, and in soft wood not more than ^". To take more 
is to endanger the adjustment of the machine. 

To do good work a trimmer must be kept perfectly 
sharp. As trimmer knives are tempered very hard, care 
must be taken in the grinding that the temper shall not 




Tr.1 ANGULAR, attachment- 
Fig. 207. Trimmer. 



132 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



be drawn. If the temper should be drawn it will be 
necessary to grind until the softened part is removed. It 
is extremely essential that the face of the knife shall not 




Fig. 208. Bench Trimmer. 

be beveled. The success of a trimmer depends upon the 
close cutting of the face of the knife edge. Any 1)evel 




Fig. 209. Trimmer Table. 



whatsoever would tend to push the knife away from the 
stock. The face of a knife is ground slightly concave, 
about 2/1000''. All the grinding and oilstoning or honing 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 133 

must be done on the bevel side. In removing the wire 
edge the face side may be touched with a fine, hard, flat 
stone just enough to remove the wire edge. The final 
stroke in honing should be taken from the bevel side as 
this tends to leave the edge shaped toward the stock to 
be cut, which produces better results. 



Fig. 210. Table for Segmental Work with Trimmer. 

Fig. 209 shows a trimmer table ingeniously laid off to 
assist in segmental work. Two gages are given so that 
both halves of the circle may be attended to. All degrees 
between the knife line and the lines marked right and 
left gage lines are for acute angles, those beyond the 
gage lines are for obtuse angles. A little study of the 
cut will indicate its use. The shaded part represents a 
segment of a 24" circle set to trim one of 6 segments. 
Figs. 210, 211, 212 are devices furnished by the manu- 



134 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



facturers of the Oliver trimmers to aid the workman in 
They are self-explanatory. 



segmental work 



TOF 
SEG 
THE 
3 BY 
GIVE 


• L-e^nnTh — ' 

IND L^ENGTH OF 
MENTS MUl-TIt 
FACTOR IN CD 
THE T^ADIUS 
N C1T^CL,E 


L.UMN 
OF A 


X 


2 


3 


TT?tANGUE 


3 


1.73S 


5QUAT?E 


4 


1.414 Z 


■PEMTAGDN 


5 


1.1 735 


MEXAGDN 


E 


1 


HEFTAGON 


7 


.BB-7-7 


OCTAGON 


B 


.VBS3 


NtlNAGON 


3 


.BB4 


DECAGON 


lO 


GIB 


UNElECA.GaN 


1 1 


.SB34 


PODECAGON 


12 


Sl^B, 



Fig. 211. Table for 

Segmental Work on 

Trimmer. 



^ Ik 
1 1 ll 


u 


LINE DF KNIFE TRAVEJU 

ANGLE OF SET DF 

SEGMEHMTS FN DEGT^EES 

OF 

F^ECUUAT^ POLYGONS 


TT^IANGLE 


3 


3D° 


SQUAT^E 


4 


4S-° 


■PENTAGON 


S 


S4° 


HEXAGON 


B 


BD° 


HEPTAGON 


■7 


B4.1 -70 


OCTAGON 


B 


6-7^5-° 


NDNAGON 


S 


7D° 


DECAGON 


ID 


7Z4 


UNDECAGDN 


1 1 


-73 3B° 




1 Z 





Fig. 212. Table for 

Segmental Work on 

Trimmer. 



127. Miter Plane and Chute Board.— Fig. 213 illus- 
trates a machine tool which serves a purpose similar to 
that of the trimmer. A plane with its iron set askew is 

made to travel a path 

. . (— Back Clamp 

along a base. An ad- ^ ^veoolulamp 

justment makes pos- 
sible the presenting of 
small stock at any de- 
sired angle with refer- 
ence to this path. 

128. Miter-Box. In 
Fig. 214 is illustrated 
a miter-box of improved 
type. The saw may be 
set at any angle desired. 
Its use is obvious. 




I met 



oTOCK- 



Fig. 213. 
Miter Plane and Chute Board. 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



135 



129. Picture Frame Miter-Box and Nailing Clamp. — 

By means of a machine tool like that shown in Fig. 215, 
pictnre frame making becomes simple. Two clamps are 
attached to a piece of molding and the miters cut. After 
miters are cut, these clamps will hold the stock firmly 
while the saw is run thru the kerf to make a ''sawed fit." 
When a fit is secured the 
frame is revolved as in 
Fig. 215-b, and the joint 
fastened by boring and 
uailing. 

130. Automatic Grinder. 
— Where planer, jointer, 
or trimmer knives are to 
be sharpened, an auto- 
matic holding and feeding device of some kind is neces- 
sary. Fig. 216 shows an attachment known as a hand 
feed, which may l)e attached to a grindstone. The knife 
is set in this feed and moved back and forth across the 
stone by means of the handwheel. 




Miter Box. 




A B 

Fig. 215. Picture Frame Miter Box and Nailing Clamp. 

Fig. 21? shows an automatic knife grinder which may 
be set to take a certain depth of cut. When this depth 
is secured the machine stops cutting. The mechanism 
is such that the carriage reverses its direction auto- 



136 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



KniFsE Holder. 



matically at th« end of each stroke. The machine will 

grind either straight or hollow edge. 

The knife shonld be set and the holder adjusted so as 

■to secure the angle of bevel desired ; an index is provided 

on the knife holder. The stops then should be set so 

that the carriage 
shall carry the 
knife almost but 
not quite off the 
stone at each 
direcjiion of travel. 
The emery 




Hand Feed 

Fig. 216. Automatic Holding and 
Feeding Device. 



wheel is cup-shaped and has a spindle speed of 1,500 R. 
P. M. The speed of the feed to the knife frame carriage 
is 23^ feet per minute, approximately. 

131. The Grindstone. — A good grindstone, Fig. 218, 
should be a part of every shop where beginners are. A 
stone with coarse grit should be selected. 

When a stone becomes smooth or shiny from use it 

OilCup- 




IRegular, Grinding 
on tMERY Wheel 

Knife Geinoing Attachment 

CounsE Oil 5tone Wheel- 
Countershaft 
and pullly6 



LE^THER or5tropping Wheel For. 
5MALL Tools 
Grinding oh 

Emery Cone 

Fine Oil 6T0NE Wheel 

Tool Holdlr Out of 

Position 

Fr,ame 



Fig. 217. Automatic Knife Grinder. 



may be put in shape again by cutting off this glaze by 
holding to its surface a piece of coarse sand stone, a 
piece of emery wheel, or by holding and rolling the end 
of a piece of gas pipe against it. A 3' stone, 6" thick is 
none too large for a good-sized shop. A stone should 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



137 



be run as fast as is possible and not throw water. A 3' 
stone may be run 65 R. P. M., or at a surface speed of 
about 600 feet per minute. Arrangements should be 
made to flow plenty of water on a stone. 

132. Power Transmission. — Leather belting repre- 
sents the primitive as well as the most common method 
of power transmission. 

The success of a shop depends greatly upon the care 
and upkeep of the belts. If they are neglected and al- 
lowed to become dry and 
loose they will not transmit 
the power properly. If they 
are not properly spliced or 
laid they will make an an- 
noying pound as the joint 
passes over the pulley. This 
not only sounds bad but is 
hard upon the bearings and 
causes a loss of power as 
well. 

There are several kinds 
of belting but the best for 
the wood shop is leather. 
Woven belts, or canvas belts 
covered with rubber, used upon threshing machines are 
harsh and do not cling to the pulleys as do leather belts. 
They are cheaper than leather belting. 

Leather belting should be kept pliable by an occasional 
application of neat's foot oil. Mineral oils must be 
avoided as they rot leather. Before applying the neat's 
foot oil, see that the belt is clean ; a cloth dampened with 
kerosene may be of assistance. Apply a light coating of 
oi^ to each side of the belt and allow this to work its wav 




Fig. 218. 
Motor Driven Grindstone. 



138 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



into the belt before a second is applied. Repeat the oiling 
until the leather is mellow and soft. 

Avoid the use to excess of sticky belt dressings. They 
cause the belt to cling to the pulley, often-times with such 
force as to pull off the grain side of the belt, as well as 
interfere with free transmission of power. An occasional 
application may be made where immediate clinging of 
belt is required. 

Belts which have be- 
come saturated with 
grease or mineral oils, 
such as machine oil, must 
be cleansed by washing 
with naphtha. 

133. Splicing Belts. — There are a number of ways to 
splice a belt. Belt hooks may be used to advantage upon 
cheap rubber belts such as are used upon farm machinery. 
Fig. 219. Such fastenings are not to be recommended for 
shop use. 

A whang or rawhide lacing may be used where the 

p-OUT6IDE OF bELT 




Fig. 219. Belt Hooks. 





Fig. 220. 



-Pulley Side or. Chain 
Wire Lacing. 



belt is to l)e run at a low speed. The "pounding" upon 
high speed machines, made by the lacing is not desirable. 
Wire lacing, Fig. 220, is often used upon woodworking 
machines. This makes a satisfactory splice and is fairly 
noiseless. This wire comes in three sizes determined by 
the size of the belt. It is quite flexible and will stand a 
great amount of wear upon pulleys of fair diameters. On 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



139 



small pulleys, such as lathe pulleys, it has a tendency to 
break, making it quite dangerous to shift such belts by 
hand. Directions for applying wire lacing will be found 
upon the box in which the wire is bought. Belt splicing 
machines can be got which will apply wire lacings very 
quickly. 

The endless or glued belts are considered the most 
satisfactory and are used upon high-speed machines 
because the splice is 



L 



r 



r 



Fig. 221. Belt Splices. 



noiseless. 

There are two 
kinds of endless belt 
splices. The single- 
ply splice, Fig. 221-a, is used where the belt is composed 
of a single thickness of leather. The double-ply splice is 
to be used upon double belts, Fig. 221-b. 

To prepare a single belt for splicing, (1) tack it to a 
board and with a smoothing plane taper the ends as 
shown. The taper should be about as long as the belt 
is wide. Professional belt men have special tools for 

-GfuiN Side a 5elt 




Fig. 222. Straight Stitch Belt Lace. 

this work but they are not a necessity, the plane serving- 
very well indeed. (2) When the ends have been pre- 
pared, place the belt alongside a straight-edge so that the 
edge of the belt may be kept straight. (3) Apply good 
hot glue, but not boiling, just as if gluing wood. The 
glue should not be too thick. (4) Turn the laps to- 
gether and with the face of the hammer work out from 



140 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



the joint all the glue possible. (5) Place a block of 
wood on the joint and apply a hand clamp to hold the 
belt between the block and the board on which the belt 
is resting. Special belt glues are prepared for belting 
purposes but the ordinary cabinet glue gives satisfactory 
service. Large belts must be glued a small portion at a 
time. Chilled glue is of no value. 

Single belts should be put on so that the grain or hair 
side will run next the pulleys, and so the points of the 
laj) will run against the pulleys. The lap on the outside 



Punch 


Diam. of 


Recom'd 
Width of 


Width 
of 


Weight 
of 


Nos. 


Hole 


Lace 


Belt 


Lace 


6 


11/64" 


^" 


[up to 5" 


Light 


7 


3/16" 






8 


1/4" 


T^^" 


] 


Light 


9 


9/32" 


Vs" 


Medium 


10 


5/16" 


tV 


[ 6" to 14" 


Medium 


11 


3/8" 


1/2" 


Heavy 


12 


13/32" 


%"&V4" 


14" & over 


Heavv 



Some beUmen use but two sizes (No. 9 and No. 11) of punches 
for all widths of laces ; that is, one hole in punched and the punch 
is then offset to cut the first round hole into an oval hole. The 
longest way of the oval hole is cut parallel with the edge (not the 
end) of the belt. Do not use a punch larger than necessary to draw 
in the lace. 

Fig. 223. 



of the belt is most likely to come loose if run against the 
air pressure. Double belts should be placed so that the 
points of the lap will run with the pulleys, since both 
sides will then not be affected by air resistance. 

There are a number of ways to lace a belt. Fig. 222 
shows one style known as the straight stitch lace. (1) 
Cut the ends of the belt to be laced square to the edge, 
using a try-square. (2) Punch a row of holes in each 
end exactly opposite each other and |" from the edge 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



141 



to -5-" 

'■*-' 16 



16 



1 2 
O O 


5 

= 

- 
6 


4 5 
O O 


1 




o o 

6 7 


o o 

9 10 



m 

Fig. 224. Straight 

Stitch Belt 

Lacing^ Grain 

Side. 



with f between centers. Begin to lay out for the holes 
at the middle of the belt width. 

Belt lacings are put up in bundles containing 100' of 
lacings, varying in width by 16ths from ^^ to V\ in- 
clusive, with additional widths of f" and f". Such lac- 
ings are very strong and are made from 
imported India cowhide or from the 
best native hides. Lacings ^ 
are known as light-weight, f to 
medium, and over that as heavy. 

Holes for lacings should be no larger 
than is recjuired to draw in the lace. 
The foregoing table, Fig. 223, gives the 
recommendation of a well-known belt- 
ing firm for proportions. 

(3) Place the ends of the belt together and begin the 
lacing. Put the lacing thru holes No. 3 and No. 8 from 
the grain side. Fig. 224. Draw the ends of the lace even. 
(4) Place lace A thru hole No. 3, down thru No. 8, up 

thru No. 4, down thru No. 9, up 
thru No. 5, down thru No. 10, up 
thru No. 5, down thru No. 10, up 
thru No. 4, down thru No. 9, up 
thru No. 3. (5) Directly back of 
hole No. 3 punch a hole with an awl, 
and draw the remaining end of the 
lace thru this hole. Cut a slight slip 
close to the belt to prevent the end 
of the lace from withdrawing. Fig. 225. (6) Take lace B 
and work it in the opposite direction, passing successively 
thru Nos. 7, 2, 6, 1, 6, 1, 7, 2, 8. (7) Fasten back of No. 8. 
Where an even number of holes are made use of the 
following order is to be used: (1) Place the lace thru 
holes No. 3 and No. 6, Fig. 226, from the flesh side and 




Fig. 225. Straight 

Stitch Belt Lace — 

Flesh Side. 



142 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



draw the ends even. (2) Place end A thru hole No. 7, 

up thru No. 4, down thru No. 8, up thru No. 4, down thru 

No. 8, up thru No. 3, down thru No. 7, up thru No. 2. 

(2) With the awl punch a hole directly back of hole No. 

2 and fasten in the usual manner. (3) Pass the end B 

of lace successively thru Nos. 2, 5, 1, 

5, 1, 6, 2, 7. (4) Fasten back of No. 7. 

There are other styles of lacing in 

common use, the directions for making 

which may be found in any belting 

manual such as put out by belting 

manufacturers. 

Fig. 226. Grain Side, Leather belts are of two kinds, oak 

Straight Stitch tanned which is the most common, and 
Belt Lace, Even i, ^ , i • i i ^i 

^T u- ^Ik tanned which has the appearance 

Number of Holes. . ^^ 

of elk hide. New belts when first 
placed upon pulleys will stretch a great deal. It is a good 
plan to stretch new belts before splicing them. Fig. 227 
illustrates one method of stretching a belt. The ends are 
made fast and a stick or board the width of the belt 
sprung under the middle. A new belt should, on ordinary 





Fig. 227. Preliminary Stretching of a New Belt. 



stretches, be made about 2'' shorter than the distance 
about and between the pulleys measures. Belts should 
not be run any tighter than is absolutely necessary. Ex- 
cessive strain on a belt means excessive strain on bear- 
ings with waste in friction. There is as much loss in 
tight as in loose belts. 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 143 

134. Selection of Belting. — A belt should never be 
used which is as wide as its pulleys. A slight misalign- 
ment of shafting will cause the edges to rub against shift- 
ing fingers, causing damage to the belt and loss of power. 
Belts should never be held in place by cleats but the 
pulleys and shafting should be aligned properly. 

Hanging belts vertically should be avoided if at all 
possible. If vertical belts must be used they should be 
thin and wide that they may grip the pulley. Preferably 
belts should be hung horizontally or at an angle, with pul- 
leys neither too close nor too far apart and with slack side 
of belt above, if possible, to increase the arc of contact. 
Short belts do not give the tension of the belt time to 
recover before being placed under stress again. Long 
belts weight the bearings unnecessarily and have a ten- 
dency to weave about over the pulleys. 

A belt should be able to transmit from 5 to 25 per cent 
overload. Single belts are best for small pulleys. Where 
the width of belt would be over 1^ times the diameter of 
the smallest pulley, a narrower double belt should be 
used with relatively narrower pulleys. Ordinarily, double 
belts are used only on pulleys 18" in diameter or over. 

The strongest belts are made from what is known as 
center stock leather. This means that such belts will be 
composed of short lengths with laps near together. Such 
belting is designated first quality. Belts made of side and 
shoulder stock are designated as second quality and are 
cheaper, being used for lighter work. 

Good leather belting has an estimated strength of 
4,000 to 4,500 pounds per square inch ; lacings reduce this 
one-third. Pulleys of large diameter are better than 
those of small diameter, the belt speed being the same. 
A speed of 4,000 feet per minute is considered the best 
for transmission purposes, 

10 



144 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

The arc of contact is the amount of pulley circumfer- 
ence in contact with the belt. Where the pulleys are 
equal the arc of contact is 180° each. 

The following formulae will assist in the proper selec- 
tion of belting: 

Speed in ft. per min.^Diam. of pulley in ft. x 3.1416 x R. P. M. of 

pulley. 
H. P. = Speecl in ft. per min. x width of belt in ins. x working 

tension, product -^ 33,000. (For single belt use 55; double 

belt, 88; three-ply, 110.) 
Width of belt to transmit given H. P.=Given H. P. x 33,0(K), 

product -^ belt speed in ft. per min. x working tension. (Single 

belts, 55; double, 88; three-ply, 110.) 

The above formulae apply only where the pulleys are 
equal or of nearly equal diameters without idlers. Where 
the arc of contact is other than 180° allowance for varia- 
tion in working tension or effective pull must be made. 

The term "working tension" or ''effective pull" is used 
to represent the force necessary to turn the pulleys. It 
represents the diff'erence in tension between the tight 
and loose sides of a belt, and varies among other things 
with the arc of contact of the smaller pulley. AVith an 
arc of contact of about 180° this value is approximately 
55 pounds per inch of belt width, single l)elt, 88 for double, 
and 110 for three-ply. 

Where arc of contact is not 180°. 

Working tension or effective pull=:Arc of contact x 55 for 
single, 88 for double, and 110 for three-ply belts, product -^ 
180. 

Arc of contact on smaller pulley may be found by stretching 
tape over the pulleys and then estimating the number of 
degrees contact by means of a protractor. Figs. 228 and 229. 

Length of l^elt is ordinarily told l)y drawing a ta])e over the 
pulleys in the position the belt will have, allowance being 
made for splice. 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



145 




Fig. 228. Determining Arc 
OF Contact. 



Fig. 230 shows some of the more common "drives'' and 
the relative positions of the pulleys to secure results. 

Occasionally it is desired to know the length of belting 
in a roll. This can be found by adding the diameter of 
the hole in the center to 
the outside diameter of 
the roll, divide the re- 
sult by 2. multiply l)y 
3 1/7, and multiply this 
result l)y the number 
of coils in the roll. If 
the diameter is taken 
in inches the final re- 
sult must l:>e divided l)v 
12. 

135. Babbitting Bearings. — While babbitting is pri- 
marily the work of the millwright, the woodworker is 
called upon not infrequently to babbitt bearings of wood- 
working machines which have worn out or ])een melted 
out thru too tight belting. 

To rebabbitt a journal, (1) take a cold chisel and cut 
out the old babbitt. Be sure to clean out the anchor 
holes, which are holes bored in the sides of the boxing 
into which the babbitt flows, forming an anchor. (2) 

Line up the shaft in the lower 
boxing as accurately as can 
possibly be done in the position 
it is to occupy. (3) With a 
blow^ torch heat the inside of 
the boxing and journal quite 
hot — so hot it cannot be handled. (4) With putty or 
clay stop up the ends of the box so the babbitt cannot 
run out. (5) Pour in the melted babbitt up to the level 
of the top of the box. (6) While the journal is still 




pARCOFGOmACT 



Fig. 229. Arc of Contact. 



146 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




Plan 
CR055ED-E)ELT DdlVE 



warm, place the upper half of the box, having heated it. 
(7) Between these two halves liners should be placed. 
Liners are generally composed of three thicknesses of 
cardboard. Wdien removed they allow the box to be 

adjusted. (8) Putty up the 
ends of the top half of the 
box, leaving a small vent 
hole at the top. (9) Pour 
the molten metal thru the 
oil hole in the top box. 

A second method of bab- 
bitting, by pouring both 
halves of the box at once, is 
as follows: (1) Cut V- 
shaped notches in the liner 
for the babbitt to run thru, 
Fig. 231. (2) Place these 
liners, locating the shaft 
properly and stopping up the 
ends of the boxes, except 
the small vent hole. (3) 
Pour the metal thru the oil 
hole in the top box. The 
metal will flow thru the V- 
shaped notches in the liners 
into the lower box. (4) 
Break the box apart by a 
quick, sharp blow on a cold 
chisel, held to cut between 
the boxes. 

If the notches are made the sizes of those of the il- 
lustration, they will admit the babbitt and still permit the 
l)Oxes to be broken apart easily. To vary the size much 




Elevation 



Mule Drjve 
Fig. 230. Common "Drives: 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



147 



will make for trouble, either the babbitt will not flow 
thru or the boxes cannot be easily broken apart. 

Babbitt is ready to pour when it is heated so that it 
will readily char a pine stick such as the reverse end of a 
match. 



Fig. 231. Liner for Babbitting Bearings. 

136. Dust Exhaust System. — Modern factories have 
complete arrangements whereby shavings, dust and chips 




Fig. 232 . Exhaust System — Interior Piping. 

from the various machines are taken away by exhaust 
thru a system of piping. The exhaust system is well il- 
lustrated in Figs. 232, 233, and 234, which show the 



148 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



piping about the machines, and the exit of the refuse at 
the boiler room where it is used for fuel. 

The outlet pipe for such a system should remain full 
size until the shavings reach the boiler room or shaving 
pit. The intake pipes may diminish in size as limited by 
capacity. If a shop system should make use of a 24" 
fan for exhausting purposes, a 10'' or 11'" main v^^ould be 

used. A planer would 
have a 5" pipe leading 
to this, the saw a 3" 
pipe, etc. The sum of 
the areas of the intake 
pipes must not 1)e 
greater than the area of 
the outlet pipe. 

A 24" fan should run 
2,500 R. P. M. and will 
take a 4 H. P. motor 
to do medium work. 

137. Shaft Drive vs. 
[ndividual Motor Drive. 
— Next to the exhaust 
system nothing aids so 
greatly in keeping a 
well ordered shop as 
the use of electrically 
distributed power. The 
relative merit of shaft-driven vs. motor-driven machines 
has been a source of considerable discussion. The con- 
census of opinion seems to be, that where heavy machines 
are operated either continuously or for part time, where 
the load is constant, direct motor drive is desirable. 
With light running machines, all of them never running 
to their full capacity at any one time, and where the loads 




Fig. 233. 
Exhaust System — Exterior Piping. 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 



149 



are variable, such as with a classroom in wood-turning, 
the group drive consisting of a number of machines con- 
nected to a shaft, with these shafts each electrically 
driven, is considered better. 

One of the objections to the direct motor drive is the 
strain put upon the motor by variable loads upon the 
machine. This is overcome greatly by either a flexible 
coupling. Fig. 235, or an intervening belt drive. 

13 8. Calculating 
Speeds and Diameters 
3f Pulleys, Saws, Grind- 
stones, Etc. — The term,^ 
"speed," as applied to 
pulleys, has reference 
to the number of rev- 
olutions the pulley will 
make in a niinute, us- 
ually indicated by the 
abbreviation R. P. M. 

Cutting speed or 
surface speed of a saw, 
a lathe, a grindstone, 
etc., has reference to 
the number of lineal 
feet of stock or of 
toothed edge, etc., 

which will pass a given stationary point in one minute 
of time. 

Rule for cutting speed: Multiply the number of feet 
in the circumference of the work being turned by the 
number of revolutions per minute to get the cutting 
speed in feet per minute. 

Rule for pulley speeds: The diameter of a driving 
pulley times its R. P. M. equals the diameter of the 




Fig. 234. Exhaust System — Piping in 
Boiler Room. 



150 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 





I ' ^ ^^"^^ Leather .Shock AB50R.be Ri^ 
Fig. 235. Flexible Coupling. 



driven pulley times its R. P. M. 

Where a series of driving- and driven pulleys must be 
traced in order to determine a fact at one extreme or the 
other, as finding the speed of a machine knowing the 
speed of the driving motor and the diameters of the var- 
ious pulleys intervening, the operation is simplified by 
knowing that the continued product of the speed or 

R. P. M. of the first 
driver by the diameters 
of the various drivers 
is equal to tlie con- 
tinued product of the 
R. P. M. of the last 
driven pulley and the various driven pulley diameters. 

Let S^ the cutting or surface speed ; c= circumference 
of the work ; then 

S= c X R. P- M. (c= diameter X 3 1/7). 
Let D= diameter of driving pulley and d= diameter 
of driven pulley ; R. P. M. the speed of the driving pul- 
ley and r. p. m. the speed of the driven pulley, then 

D X R. P. M. = d X r. p. m. ^ 
whence 

d X r. p. m., 
R. P. M. ' 
Or, in a series 

D X D' X D" X R. P. M. = 
d X d' X d'' X r" p" m" 
whence 




Fig. 236. Speed Indicator. 



r'' \V' nV'-- 



:D X D' X D" X R. P. M. 



etc, 



d X d' X d" 

Where transmission is thru gears instead of pulleys, as 
in determining the feed of a planer, the following rules 
are applicable : 



WOODWORKING MACHINES. 151 

Rule for speed: The speed or R. P. M. of any two 
meshing gears is inversely porportional to the number of 
teeth. 

Where a train of gears is to be figured, the continued 
product of the R. P. M. of the first driver and the number 
of teeth in the various driving gears equals the continued 
product of the R. P. M. of the last driven gear and the 
number of teeth in the various driven gears. 

An intermediate gear is a gear used merely to transmit 
powder from one gear to another. As it does not affect 
the speed ratio of driver and driven gear it may be 
neglected in figuring the train of gears. One or more 
of these intermediate gears will be found in every train, 
a train consisting of three or more gears in mesh. 

Let S ^ speed or R. P. M. of driving gear ; s = speed 
of driven gear; T = number of teeth of driver and t = 
number of teeth of driven gear, then 

S:s::t:T, 
whence 



SxT, ^ 
s= — -— , etc. 



Also, 
whence 



X T X T' X T" = s X t X t' X t". 



S X T X T' X T'', 
^^ txt-xt- - '"'- 



Fig. 236 illustrates a tool known as a s])ee(l indicator. 
•The pointed end is held firmly against the end of a re- 
volving shaft and the number of revolutions in a .^riven 
time may be read on the graduated dial. 



CHAPTER IV. 
Joinery. 

139. Joinery. — This term in its broader meaning refers 
to the art of framing the finishing work of a house, such 
as doors and windows ; and to the construction of per- 
manent fittings, such as niantels, cupboards, Hnen presses, 
etc. Joinery as used herein refers merely to the putting- 
together of two or more parts, called the members. 

Joinery, in its first meaning, is well illustrated by the 
many articles of completed furniture to be found il- 
lustrated thruout the book, in its second meaning by Figs. 
271-277. 

140. General Directions for Joinery. — Take into con- 
sideration the direction of the grain in planning the rela- 
tive positions of the members. Make due allowance where 
shrinkage is likely to be considerable. 

As far as possible, plan to have the members join face 
to face. Face sides are more likely to be true than are 
the other two surfaces and therefore the joints are more 
likely to fit properly. 

Make all measurements from a common starting point, 
as far as practicable. Remember to keep the head of the 
gage and the l)eam of the try-square against one or the 
other of the faces, unless there should be special reason 
for doing otherwise. 

In ])ractice it is sometimes advisable to locate the sides 
of a joint by superposition rather than by measurement. 

Laying out by superposition consists in placing one 

152 



JOINERY. 



153 



member upon another and marking upon the second 
member the width, thickness or length of the first. 
Usually, it is found possible to 
locate and square with knife and 
try-square a line to represent one 
of the sides of the joint. The 
first member is then held so that 
one of its arrises rests upon this 
line, and a point is made with 
knife at the other arris. The 
superimposed piece is then re- 
moved and a line made with knife 
and try-square — not thru the mark 
of the knife point but inside, just 




touching it. 



Fig. 237 illustrates 



Center, Line5 
Fig. 237. Locating 
WITH Center Lines. 



locating with center lines. 

Where several members or parts are to be laid out, cut 
and fitted, it is of the utmost importance that the work be 
done systematically. System and power to visualize — 
that is, to see things in their proper relation to one an- 
other in the finished piece — 
make it possible for men to 
lay out and cut the members 
of the most intricate frames 
of buildings before a single 
part has been put together. 
Lay out duplicate parts and 
duplicate joints as taught in 
elementary woodwork, Fig. 
238. Where several joints of 
a similar size and kind are to be fitted, mark the different 
parts to each joint with the same number or letter as 
soon as fitted, that no other member may be fitted to 




Fig. 238. Laying Out 
Duplicate Parts. 



154 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



-a.^«^ 




either of these, Fig. 239. On small pieces, such as the 
stool, it is possible to aid in visualizing by setting up the 

posts in the positions they 
are to occupy relative to one 
another, marking roughly, as 
with a penciled circle, the ap- 
proximate location of the 
mortises, auger holes, etc., 
Fig. 240. The members may 
then be laid on the bench and 
accurately, marked without 
danger of misplacing the 
openings. 

AAHiile the knife is used al- 
most exclusivelv in lavinj; 



t 



Fig. 239. Marked Duplicate 
Parts and Joints. 




out joints, there are a few instances in which a pencil, if 
well sharpened and used with slight pressure, is prefer- 
ci])lc. To illustrate : suppose it is desired to locate the 
ends of the mortises in 
the posts. Fig. 239. To 
knife entirely across the 
surfaces of the four 
pieces and around the 
sides of each, as would 
be necessary to locate 
the ends of the mor- 
tises, would injure the 
surfaces. Instead, pen- 
cil these lines and gage 
between the ]) e n c i 1 
lines. Those parts of 

the pencil lines enclosed t^^ ^.^ ,«■ . 

' . Fig. 240. Marking Approximate 

by the gage Imes the Location of Mortises, Auger Holes, 
ends of the mortises — Etc. 




JOINERY. 155 

may then be knifed, if desired, to assist in placing the 
chisel for the final cut. 

In sawing joints in hard wood, the saw should be made 
to cut accurately to the line. When working soft wood, 
beginners are often permitted to leave a small margin — 
about one thirty-second of an inch — between the knife 
line and the saw kerf. This margin is afterward pared 
away with the chisel. 

In assembling framework and the like, where it is 
necessary to drive the parts together, always place a block 
of wood upon the member to be pounded to take the in- 
dentations that will be made. A mallet is preferable to a 
hammer for such pounding. 

141. Dado. — A dado, Fig. 241, is made by cutting a 
rectangular groove entirely across one member into which 
the end of another member fits. Dadoes are cut across the 





Fig. 241. Groove for Fig. 242. Testing 
Dado. Groove for Dado. 

grain of the wood ; when similar openings are cut parallel 
to the grain, they are called simply grooves. Dadoes are 
used in the making of shelving, window and door frames, 
etc. 

142. Directions for Dado. — (1) Locate by means of 
the rule one side of the dado, and mark its position with 
the point of the knife. (2) At this point, square a sharp 
line across the piece with knife and try-square. (3) By 
superposition, locate and mark the second side. (4) 
Square these lines across the edges of the piece a distance 
equal to the approximate depth of the dado. (5) Set the 



156 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



gage for the required depth and gage between the knife 
lines on the two edges. (6) Saw just far enough inside 
the knife lines that the sides of the dado may be finished 
to the lines with the chisel. Saw down just to the gage 
lines, watching both edges that the kerfs be not made too 
deep. (7) Chisel out the waste until the bottom of the 
dado is smooth and true. Test the bottom as shown in 
Fig. 242. Two brads are driven into a block having a 
straight edge, until they project a distance equal to the 
proposed depth of the dado. (8) Pare the sides of the 
dado to the knife lines. These sides might be finished in 
another way, by setting a wide chisel in the knife line and 
tapping it gently with a mallet. If care is taken the suc- 
cessive settings of the chisel need not show. 

Where the dado is to 
be cut on a piece nar- 
row enough that the 
saw may be made to 
follow the line ac- 
curatel}', it is con- 
sidered better practice 
to saw accurately to the 
line. 

143. Cross-Lap Joint. — Usually, stock for the two 
members of the cross-lap joint can be best planed to width 
and thickness in one piece. Place two sets of face marks 
on the piece, so that there shall be one set of marks on 
each member after they are separated. Two methods of 
making this joint are giAcn. The first is safer for begin- 
ners ; the second, because the members cannot be tried 
until the joints are completed, is an excellent test of one's 
ability. Fig. 243. 

144. Directions for Cross-Lap Joint. — I'irst Method: 
(1) Square the two ends, measure from each of these the 




Fig. 243. Cross-Lap Joint. 



JOINERY. 



157 




Fig. 244. Showing Method of 

Locating Position for Cor- 

' responding Lines. 



desired length of each member, square knife lines around, 
saw apart, finishing the ends square to the lines. (2) 
Measure from one end of each member the required 
distance to the nearer edge of the joint. Since the corre- 
sponding faces of the two members must be on the same 
side of the piece when the 
parts are put together, it will 
be necessary to lay off the 
groove of one member on the 
face, and of the other mem- 
ber on the side opposite the 
face. If the joints are to be 
in the middle of each member but one measurement need 
])e made. (3) Square sharp knife lines across at these 
points. (4) By superposition, locate and knife the 
second edge of each joint. (5) If the joints are to be in 
the middle of each member, before proceeding farther, 
test to see that the lines have been laid out properly. If 
the members are placed side by side and the ends evened 

as in laying out in (2), the lines will 
of necessity correspond. Turn one 
of the members end for end and even 
the two ends ; the lines ought still to 
correspond. If they do not, points 
marked midway between the corres- 
ponding lines will give the correct 
position for the new lines. Fig. 244. 
(6) Extend the knife lines across 
the two adjoining surfaces of each 
member. (7) Set the gage for the required depth and 
gage between the knife lines on the surfaces. Tho the 
groove on one member is laid out on the side opposite 
the face, do not make the mistake of holding the head of 
the gage against other than the face. (8) Saw accurately 




Fig. 245. Testing 
Grooves of Lap-joint. 




158 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

to the knife lines and to a depth indicated by the gage 
lines. (9) Chisel out the waste stock. (10) Test as 
shown in Fig. 245. A well-made cross-lap joint is one in 
which the members can be put together with the pressure 
of the hands and which will not fall apart of its own 
weight. Fig. 246 shows the results of "forcing a fit." 

145. Directions for Cross-Lap Joint. — Second Method. 

The two members arc to 
be planed to width and 
thickness in one piece, 1)ut 
are not to be separated un- 
til the grooves have been 

Showing Results of laid out and cut. The 
Forcing Fit in Lap-Joint. grooves must be laid out 

by measurement only, since superposition is impossible. 
The positions of the grooves relative to the face are, as 
in the first method, one on the face and one on the side 
opposite. The gaging for both is done from the face. 

146. Glue Joint. — Frequently it becomes necessary to 
glue together a number of boards to make one wide 
enough to meet the requirements of the work in hand. 
A table top is a good illustration. A properly glued 
butt joint ought to be stronger than the natural wood. 

When the wood is of sufficient thickness, the joint may 
be reinforced by means of dowels. The jointer should be 
used for planing the edges. It is extremely difficult to 
prepare edges for glue joints with the shorter planes. 
The jack-plane should be used to rough oft' the edges 
and prepare them for the jointer. 

147. Directions for Glue Joint. — (1) If the boards 
are in the rough, plane one surface of each true and out of 
wind. (2) Pencil the face marks upon these surfaces and 
indicate in some way the direction of the surface grain as 
well. Later, it will be necessary to plane both pieces at 



JOINERY. 



159 




Fig. 247. Position of Parts 
— Glue Joint. 



once in surfacing over the joints, and unless the parts are 
fitted with proper regard to the grain, it will be impossible 
to plane one without roughing up the other. Then, too, 
the faces should be so selected that the warpage of one 
shall counteract the warpage of 
the other. Fig. 247 shows the 
manner of placing the pieces. 
Observe the rings of growth. 
Boards which have the annual 
rings extending directly across, 
quarter-sawed boards, will be 
found best for making up table 
tops, etc., because less subject to warpage. If plain or 
bastard sawed stock is to be used it may be found advis- 
able to rip wide boards into widths of four to six inches, 
reversing each piece as in Fig. 247. (3) Joint one edge of 
each piece straight and square. The final plane strokes 
must be taken the full length of the board and the plane- 
iron must be set very 
shallow. Since the 
shrinkage is more at 
the ends than in the 
middle, sometimes 
the middles of long- 
boards are planed 
just a shaving or two 
lower than the ends. 
A more common 
practice among prac- 
tical woodworkers is 
to place the two pieces in the vise, face surfaces together, 
and plane the two edges at once, using a jointer with the 
iron ground squarely across. Fig. 248. No try-square 




Fig. 248. 



Planing Edges for Glue 
Joint. 



11 



160 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




Fig. 249. Testing Glue Joint. 



test is necessary but the edges must be straight. When 

the boards have been jointed straight and as nearly 

square across as the worker can estimate by the "feel" 

of the position of 
the plane while 
working, the vise 
is released and one 
of the boards is re- 
volved Q(lg;t over 
edge and set in 
position upon the 
other board. If 
one member is re- 
volved in this way 

it may be observed why no try-square test is necessary — 

any inclination or bevel on one member being equalized by 

a corresponding opposite bevel on the other. The members 

should be marked as in 

Fig. 247 so that they may 

be properly and quickly 

placed when glued, ready 

for clamping. (4) Place 

one of the boards in the 

vise, jointed edge up, and 

place the other board in 

position on it. Four tests 

are commonly used : First, 

placing the eye on a level 

with the joint and looking 

toward the light. Fig. 249 ; 

second, tapping the under ^^^^ ^SO. Testing Faces of Glue 

board lightly to see if the Joint. 

top board ''rocks" ; third, 

sliding the top board lengthwise slowly to "feel" for sue- 




JOINERY. 



161 




251. Applying Glue to 
Edges of Boards. 



tion ; fourth, holding a straight-edge as shown in Fig. 250, 
to see that the faces lie in the same plane. (5) Glue the 
edges, Fig. 251. Work rapidly but carefully. (6) Place 
the parts in the clamps and set away to dr\^; ten hours is 
usually long enough. Keep 
the faces as even as possible 
in applying the clamps. (7) 
When the glue has hardened 
the clamps may be removed, 
the surplus glue scraped off 
and the parts treated as one 
piece in squaring it up. 

148. Doweling. — Dowels 
are small wooden pins, used 
in joining parts together. 
Dowels can be bought ready 
made in a variety of sizes. If desired short dowels may 
be made as follows : (1) Select straight-grained, strong 
wood — beech, birch or oak ; waste wood can usually be 
found that will do. (2) Split, not saw, these pieces 
roughly to square prisms. The blocks from which they 
are to be split should not be over eight or ten inches long 

to work well. (3) Plane off 
the irregularities, roughly 
rounding the pieces to size. 
(4) Point the ends slightly 
and drive the pieces thru a 
dowel plate. Fig. 252. The 
pegs should be driven thru 
the larger hole first. The 
holes of the dowel plate are 
larger in diameter on one 
side of the plate than on the other to give clearance to the 
peg as it is driven thru. 



0=© 




Fig. 252. Driving Dowel Rods 
Through Plate. 



162 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



The cutting edge of the hole is at the smaller diameter ; 
place that side of the plate up. Never use a hammer as it 
would split the top of the peg and would ruin the cutting 
edge of the dowel plate should it strike it. Use a mallet, 
and when the peg is nearly thru finish by striking a 
second peg placed upon the head of the first. 

149. Directions for Doweling. — (1) Place the boards 
to be doweled side by side in the vise, the face sides out, 
and even the jointed edges. (2) Square lines across the 
two edges with knife and try-square at points where it is 
desired to locate dowels. (3) Set the gage for about 
half the thickness of the finished board and gage from 
the face side across knife lines. (4) At the resulting 
crosses bore holes of the same diameter as that of the 
dowel. 

These holes should be bored to a uniform depth. Count 
the turns of the brace. One inch is a good depth for 

ordinary work. (5) Count- 
ersink the holes slightly, just 
enough to remove the sharp 
arrises. This removes any 
burr and allows a little space 
into which the surplus glue 
may run. (6) Cut the sharp 
arrises off the dowel, just 
enough to allow it to be started into the hole. (7) With 
a stick slightly smaller than the hole, place glue upon the 
sides of the hole and drive the dowel in. A narrow saw 
kerf previously cut along the side of the dowel will allow 
the surplus glue to escape and thus prevent any danger 
of splitting the board. (8) Clean off the surplus glue, 
unless the members can be placed together before it has 
had time to set. (9) Saw off the dowels to a length 
slightly less than the depth of the holes in the second 




Fig. 253. Doweled Joint. 



JOINERY. 



163 




Fig. 254. 



Keyed Mortise-and-Tenon Joint. 



piece. (10) Trim off the sharp arrises, Fig. 253. (11) 
Glue the holes and the edge of the second board. (12) 
Put the two members in the clamps and set away until 
the glue has had time to harden. 

150. Keyed Tenon-and-Mortise. — Fig. 254 shows the 
tenon, the mortise in the second member into which the 
tenon fits, the 
mortise in the ten- 
on and its key or 
wedge. 

151. Directions 
for K e y. — Keys 
are made in quite 
a variety of 
shapes. Some of 
the simple forms are shown in Fig. 255. Where two or 
more keys of the same size are to be made, it is customary 
to plane all in one piece. (1) Plane a face side, a face 
edge, and shape the remaining edge as desired. If there is 
more than one key, (2) Gage and plane each to 
thickness. The lines A-B and C-D, Fig. 255, indicate 
the points at which measurements are to be made 
to determine the length of mortise in the tenon which is 

to receive the key. These 

lines should be laid off at a 

/b/ distance apart, equal to the 

thickness of the tenon. 

152, Directions for Ten- 

.^ T^ T^ on. — (1) Measure from the 

Simple Forms of Keys. ^ ^ 

end of the piece the length 

of the tenon, and mark with a knife point. Where tenons 

are to be cut on both ends of a piece, measurement is 

frequently made from the middle of the piece each way, to 

locate the shoulders. Should there be anv variation in 




Fig. 255. 




164 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

the leng^th of the piece from what it should be, this 
difference will then be equally divided at the ends. This 
is done when it is more important to have the distance 
between the shoulders of a definite length, than that the 
tenons be of correct length. (2) Square knife lines 
entirely around the piece at the knife point mark. (3) 
Set the gage equal to the distance required from the face 

edge to the nearest edge of the 
tenon, and mark on both sides, as 
far as the shoulder marks, and on 
tbe end. (4) Repeat, setting the 
gage from the face edge to the 
farther edge of the tenon. If the 
two members are of the same 
Fig. 256. Marking with width and the tenon and mortise 
Point of Knife. g,,^ ^^^ ^^ equally distant from the 

face edge, both tenon and mortise should be gaged with 
the same settings. Frequently the gage settings are 
obtained from the rule indirectly. The rule is laid across 
the piece and the width or thickness of mortise or tenon 
marked with the point of a knife blade. Fig. 256. The 
spur of the gage is then set in one of these points, the 
block being pushed firmly 
against the face ; the 
thumb screw is then 
fastened. Fig. 257. The 
second setting is obtained 

in a similar manner from ..^ ^ 

, , . 1 V 11 I'^K'- -5/- G.\(;e Skt to Mark. 

the same edge or side. All 

the pieces are marked for the first width before resetting. 

(5) After having laid out the mortise in the tenon (see 

1, Sec. 154), rip to the gage lines and cross-cut to the 

shoulder lines, paring if necessary. (6) Slightly chamfer 

the ends of the tenon. 




JOINERY. 



165 



153. Directions for Mortise.— (1) From one end of 
the piece measure and mark with the knife point the re- 
spective distances to the two edges of the mortise. (2) 
Square lines across the face edge and the two broad sur- 
faces at these points. (3) Set the gage equal to the re- 
quired distance from the face edge to the nearer edge of 
the mortise and mark between the lines. (4) Set the 
gage equal to the required distance from the face edge to 
the farther edge of the mortise and mark between the 
lines. Make both gage lines on face side and side op- 
posite as well. (5) Cut the mortises. First, bore a 
series of holes thru the mortise, using a bit somewhat 
smaller than the width of the mortise. 
Bore these holes so that they connect 
one with another. (6) Place the piece 
on a chiseling board and, taking thin 
cuts about half way thru, work from 
the middle of the mortise out to within 
one thirty-second of an inch of the 
knife and gage lines. (7) Reverse 
and chisel from the other side, finish- 
ing it; then chisel the first side out to the lines. Test 
the sides of the mortise with a straight-edge— the blade 
of the chisel makes a good one — to see that thev are cut 
straight. Fig. 258. 

154. Directions for Mortise in the Tenon.— (1) Lay 
out the sides of the mortise for the key before the sides 
and shoulders of the tenons are cut. From the shoulder 
line of the tenon, measure toward the end a distance 
slightly less (about i^'') than the thickness of the member 
thru which the tenon is to pass. This is to insure the 
key's wedging against the second member. (2) Square 
this line across the face edge and on to the side opposite 
the face side. (3) On the top surface measure from the 




Fig. 258. 
Testing Sides. 



166 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




Fig. 259. Laying 
Off Mortise for 
Key or Wedge. 



line just squared around the piece a distance equal to the 
width the key is to have at this point when in place, Fig. 
255, A-B. (4) Square a i^encil line across the surface 
at this point. (5) In a similar .manner, measure and 
locate a line on the opposite side, C-D, 
F^ig. 255. (6) Set the gage and mark 
the side of the mortise nearer the face 
edge on face side and side opposite. 
(7) Reset, and from the face edge 
gage the farther side of the mortise, 
marking both sides. (8) This mortise 
may be bored and chiseled like the. one 
preceding. As one side of the mortise 
is to 1:»e cut sloping, a little more care 
will l)e needed. 

A second method of laying out the mortise in the tenon 
consists in locating the ends of the mortise by placing the 
key as in Vig. 259 and scribing along the sloping side. 
These lines are then squared across the two surfaces of 
the tenon. The remainder of the procedure is similar 
to that just described. 

155. Blind Mortise-and-Tenon. — Pn)1)ably no joint 
has a greater variet}^ of ai)plications than the lilind 
mortise-and-tenon. Fig. 
260. It is of equal im- 
])ortance to carpentry, 
joinery and cabinet- 
making. The tenon ^^-^__Ji^^^i^ iMofiTiSL 
shown has four pj^ 260 
shoulders ; it is often Blind Mortise-and-Tenon Joint. 
made witli Init three or two. 

156. Directions for Tenon. — (1) Measure from the 
end of the piece the length of tenon (see also directions 
for tenon, Sec. 152), and mark with the point of a knife. 



SHOULD [ftS 

Tenon 



CHEEKS 




JOINERY. 167 

(2) Square knife lines entirely around the four sides at 
this point to locate the shoulders. (3) Lay the rule 
across the face edge near the end of the piece and mark 
points with the end of the knife to indicate the thickness 
of the tenon. Fig. 256. (4) With the head of the gage 
against the face side, set the spur of the gage in one of 
these marks, then fasten the thumb screw, Fig. 257. Gage 
on the end and the two edges as far back as the knife 
lines. When there are several tenons remember to mark 
all of them before resetting. (5) Set the gage in the 
other mark, the head of the gage being placed against 
the face side ; then gage as before. (6) In a similar 
manner, place the rule across the face side, mark points 
with the knife for the width of tenon, set the gage to 
these points, and gage oh the face and side opposite as 
far as the shoulder lines and across the end. The head 
of the gage must be held against the face edge for both 
settings. (7) Rip to all of the gage lines first, then 
cross-cut to the shoulder lines, using back-saw. (8) 
The end of the tenon may be slightly chamfered that it 
-may be started into the mortise without tearing off the 
arrises of the opening. 

157. Directions for Laying out Mortise. — (1) From 
one end of the piece measure the required distance to the 
nearer and the farther ends of the mortise. Mark points 
with the knife. (2) Square lines across at these points. 

(3) Lay the rule across the face into which the mortise 
is to be cut, and mark points with the knife for the sides 
of the mortise. (4) Set the gage as was done for the 
tenon, the spur being placed in the knife point mark and 
the head of the gage being pushed up against the face. 
Gage between the cross lines. (5) Reset from the same 
face for. the other side of the mortise, and then gage. 

If a mortise or tenon is to be placed in the middle of a 



168 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



piece, find the middle of the piece and with the knife 
place points to each side of the center mark at a distance 
equal to one-half the thickness or width of the tenon or 
mortise. When several mortises or tenons of the same 
size are to be laid out and are to be equally distant from 
a face, the gage needs to be set but twice for all — once 
to mark the nearer edges and once for the farther edges 
of the tenon or mortise. Should there be several hke 
members with like joints, the gage settings obtained from 
the first piece will sufiice for all. 

The importance of working from face sides or face 
edges only, cannot be overestimated. To work from 
either of the other two sides of a piece would make the 
joints subject to any variation in the widths or thick- 
nesses of the pieces. To gage from the faces only, in- 
sures mortises and tenons of exact 
size no matter how much the 
pieces may vary in widths or 
thicknesses. 

158. Directions for Cutting 
Mortise. — Two methods of cutting, 
mortises are in common use, (a) 
l)oring and chiseling, and (b) 
chiseling alone. First method : 
(1) Fasten the piece in the vise 
in a horizontal position. (2) Bore 
a series of connecting holes to the 
required depth with a bit- slightly 
smaller than the width of the mor- 
tise. (3) The sides of the mortise 
are next pared to the gage and 
knife lines, beginning at the auger 
holes and working with thin slices toward the lines. This 
method requires care and patience in order to get the 




Fig. 261. Last Step in 
Mortising. 



JOINERY. 



169 



sides of the mortise cut square to the surface. It is es- 
pecially well adapted to large mortises from which much 
wood is to be removed. 

159. Directions for Cutting Mortise. — Second Meth- 
od: (1) Clamp the piece which is to be mortised firmly 
to the bench top, using a hand clamp. Fig. 261 illustrates 
the proper position for the worker at the bench. Tighten 
the vise screw until it holds the piece solidly. (2) 
Select a chisel of a width equal to that desired for 
the mortise. Stand well back of the mortise at one 
end or the other so as to be able to sight the cliisel 
plumb with reference to the sides of the mortise. (3) 
Begin the cutting in the center of the mortise. Make the 
first cut with the bevel of the chisel toward you ; reverse 
the bevel and cut out the wedge-shaped piece, w. Fig. 
262. (4) Continue cutting in 
this manner until the proper 
depth has been attained, mak- 
ing the opening no larger at the 
surface than is necessary. (5) 
Set the chisel in a vertical 
position, bevel towards you, 
begin at the center and, taking- 
thin slices, cut toward the 
farther end. Drive the chisel the full depth of the niortise 
each time, then pull the handle towards you to break 
the chip from the sides of the mortise. Cut to within 
y of the end of the mortise. (6) Reverse the piece, or 
your position, and cut in a similar manner to within 
^" of the second end. (7) With the bevel side of the 
chisel next to the end of the mortise pry out the chips once 
or twdce as the cutting proceeds. (8) Chisel the ends 
to the knife lines, carefully sighting the chisel for the 
two directions. Fig". 263 suggests the order. 




Fig. 262. Cutting Out 
Wedge- Shaped Piece. 



170 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



160. Miter Joint. — The miter joint is subject to vari- 
ous modifications. In the plain miter, Fig. 264, the ends 

f d b ace 




IL 11 10 5 8 7 C I L 3 4. 5 13 



Fig. 263. Order for Chiseling Out Mortise. 



or edges abut. They are usually fastened with glue or 
nails or both. The most common form of the plain miter 
is that in which the slope is at an angle of 45° to the 
edge or side. 

161. Directions for Miter Joint. — (1) Lay off the 
slopes. (2) Cut and fit the parts. To fit and fasten four 
miter joints, such as are found in a picture frame, is no 
easy task. Special miter boxes are made for this purpose 
which make such work comparatively easy. (3) Fig. 
265 shows the manner of applying the hand clamps to a 
simple miter joint. When a joint is to be nailed, drive 
the nail thru one piece until its point projects slightly. 




Fig. 264. Plain Miter Joints. Fig. 265. Clamping Miter Joint. 

Place the second piece in the vise to hold it firmly. Hold 
the first piece so that its end projects somewhat over 



JOINERY, 



171 




Fig. 266. 

Method of 

Nailing Miter 

Joint. 



and beyond that of the second ; the nailing will tend to 

bring it to its proper position, Fig. 266. If a nail is 

driven thru from the other direction, care 

must be taken to so place it that it will 

not strike the first, or a split joint will 

result. 

162. Dovetail Joint. — Dovetailed joints 
are so named from the shape of the pieces 
which make the joint. Fig. 267 shows a 
thru multiple dovetail commonly used in 
fastening the corners of tool boxes. In 
hand-made dovetails, the tenons are very 
narrow and the mortises wide, while in 
machine-made dovetails, tenons and mortises are of equal 
width. Mechanics lay out the tenons without measure- 
ment, depending upon the eye unaided to give the proper 
size and shape. Sometimes dovetails are laid out to 
exact shape and size, the tenons being marked on both 

sides and ends. The 
mortises are marked 
with try-square and 
bevel after one side 
of each has been 
marked by superim- 
posing the tenons. 
In some kinds of 
dovetailing, such as 
the half-blind dove- 
tail, the mortises are 
made first and the 
^Tenons ""^^ tenons marked out 

OfiPlN5 from them by super- 

FiG. 267. Dovetail Joint. position. 




172 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



163. Directions for Dovetail Joint. — (1) Square 
lines around each end to locate the inner ends of the 
mortises and tenons. These lines will be at a distance 
from the ends equal to the respective thicknesses of the 
pieces. (2) Determine the number of tenons wanted 
and square center lines across the end of the member 
which is to have the tenons. Place these center lines 
so that the intervening spaces shall be equal. (3) 
Measure along an arris and mark on either side of these 
center lines one-half of the desired width of the tenon. 
In fine hand-made dovetails, the usual width for the 
narrow edge of tenon is scarcely more than one-sixteenth 

of an i n c h — t h e 
width of a narrow 
saw kerf. (4) Set 
the bevel for the 
amount of flare de- 
sired. Fig. 268 shows 
measurements which 
may be used in set- 
ting the bevel. A 
flare stick may be 
made of thin wood 

and used instead of a 
Fig. 268. Marking Dovetail Joint. , i -r i • i t-- 

bevel IT desired, rig. 

268. (5) Mark the flares on either side of the center 

lines. Place the bevel so that the wide side of the tenon 

shall be formed on the face side of the piece. (6) Carry 

these lines back on each side of the piece as far as the 

lines previously drawn across these sides. (7) With a 

fine tenon saw rip accurately to the lines. Cut the kerfs 

out of the mortises, not out of the tenons. (8) Chisel 

out the mortises formed between the tenons, and trim 

up any irregularities in the tenons. (9) Set the tenons 







JOIN£RY. 



173 



on end on the face side of the second member, with 
the face side just touching the cross line placed on the 
second member, Fig. 269, and mark along the sides of 
the tenons. (10) Square lines across the end to corres- 
pond with the lines just drawn. (11) Saw accurately to 
the lines, cutting kerfs out of the mortises, not the tails. 
Chisel out the mortises for the tenons. Fig. 270. (12) 
Fit the parts together. 



<!?^ 





Fig. 269. 
Marking Sixond Member. 



Fig. 270. 
Chiseling Mortises. 



164. Additional Joints. — In addition to the typical 
joints just described, the following forms of fastenings 
will be found in common use: Figs. 271 to 277. With 
the information and experience obtained in the making 
of the type forms, one should have little difficulty in 
laying out and constructing these additional forms. 



174 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




Hopper, joint 




GlOed AND Blocked Joint 




Toe Nail Joint 




a 



Doweled Butt joint draw bolt Joint 

Fig. 271. 



JOINERY. 



175 




Lapped Dove-tail Ledge o^ Rabbet 




Gained Joint Thru Mohtisl z. Tenon 

Fig. 272. 



12 



176 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




bJ 




5m M0O5E s< Tenon pinned MofiTi5[ &-Tenon 




5lip Joint 



Wed6[dMo^ti5E kJmon 




Double /VloCT5E&T[NON 




Fox-tail Tenon 



Fig. 273. 



JOINERY. 



\77 




DovL-TAiL MofeTijf: ^x Tenon 



r^ ( 


1 / 


^i^ 1 



Tu5K Tenon 




5plin[ Mitlr. 



Fig. 274. 



178 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 





Lappld^ Strapped 



Dove -TAIL Dado 




FI5HED JOINT-A 



FI5HED JOINr-B 



i^^ t^a c^b. 




Splice Joint 56ar.f Joint 

Fic. 275. 



JOINERY. 



179 




BEVEL-3H0ULDEflJ0INT 



THRLi^TJoiNT-B 



Fig. 276. 



180 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




5PLINE Joint 



Matched Joint 




Rabbeted ^ riLLibTEfiED Joint 




BEADED Joint 




Coped Joint 




DflAWEHCOflNER- 



Fig. 277. 



JOINERY. 



181 




Fig. 278. Setting T-Bevel 
FROM Drawing. 



165. Hopper Joint.-^The hopper joint is laid out and 
worked as follows: (1) Work the members to the 
proper width. (2) Plane the upper and lower edges 
to the proper bevel. The set- 
ting of the T-bevel may be ob- 
tained by setting it upon the 
drawing, Fig. 278. (3) Lay 
off the proper lengths and, 
with T-bevel and knife, score 
lines on the outer surfaces. (4) 
Square these lines across the 
upper and lower edges and con- 
nect on the inner surfaces. (5) 
Saw and plane to these lines. 

If the corner is to be composed of a miter joint in- 
stead of a butt joint, the miter square must be used in 
scoring across the edges, Fig. 279. 

If the hopper is to have more than four sides, the 
miter across the edges will have to be laid out by means 
of the combination square or bevel pro- 
tractor. In determining the setting of the 
tool, remember that the sum of all the 
angles about a point is 360° ; that the 
angle A, Fig. 280, in any regular polygon 
will be 360° divided by the number of 
sides possessed by the polygon. Again, 
the sum of the three angles of any tri- 
FiG. 279. Bevel ^j-^g-j^ equals 180° ; therefore, angles B 

Placed for i n/ i • i -n i i i 

MiTERED Hopper ^"^^ ^ ^^"^^ ^"^''^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^.^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ 
Joint. one-half the remainder obtained by sub- 

tracting angle A from 180°. This fact 
might have been expressed in a simple formula ; the 
student may do this for himself. 




182 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



The combination square, Fig. 40, makes possible any 
setting in degrees that may be desired. 

It must be remembered that the method of laying out 
a hopper just described is applicable only where the 
edges are made parallel with the base. 

The principle used in obtaining the angular measure- 
ment for a miter cut of a hopper of any number of sides 
applies with equal force to segmental work in carpentry, 
[)attern-making and cal)inet-work. In Fig. 281, for il- 




FiG. 280. Central 
Angle of Any Poly- 
gon EouALS 360°^N. 




Fig. 281. 

'J' ABLE La. MP. 



lustration, the miters for the base, as well as the column, 
will be obtained in this manner. The shade is nothing 
more than a hopper inverted and may ])e laid out like a 
hopper. 

The beginner may have observed that he has no way 
of testing a mitered edge on the shade except by means 
of the lines drawn across the top and bottom edges with 
the straight lines on the surfaces connecting these. That 
is, he cannot by the method described, determine a setting 
for his bevel or combination square for a test across a 
mitered edge w^ith the beam on a face surface. It is 
possible to determine this angle, but it involves geometry 



JOINERY. 183 

wliicli the high-school boy will not have had in the early 
years. The method given will produce satisfactory re- 
sults. 

166. Doweled Joint. — In the construction of the 
doweled butt joint it is not always easy, because of the 
irregularity of the members, to locate centers by measure- 
ment. In such a case small brads may be driven into the 
end of one of the members and the heads snipped ofif so 
as to allow a protrusion of the remainder, of -|". This 
member is then held in position relative to the second 
member and the points forced against the second member. 
Afterward the nails may be withdrawn, the holes forming 
the centers for boring. 

Where many like members are to be doweled, tem- 
plates or templets of tin or cardboard may be made of a 
shape which can be easily fitted to each member. Holes 
are punched in this templet as desired ; pricks with an 
awl thru these holes locate boring centers. 

Still another method consists in turning on the lathe 
dowel markers. Fig. 282. By /^7"^ F 

having: a variety of sizes with / / ^ ' \ 

the centers accurately placed, y"\ ^/ J 

time may be saved over the ^^--^:i U 

methods just descriBed. To use F"^- 282- Dowel Marker. 
this marker, bore the holes in one of the members, insert 
markers of proper sizes and then press this member 
against the second member. 

167. Pinned Mortise-and-Tenon. — In making the 
pinned mortise-and-tenon, the hole in the member con- 
taining the mortise is laid ofif by measurement. The 
hole in the tenon for the pin is also laid oi¥ by measure- 
ment but with this difiference — it is drawbored. This 
consists in locating and boring the hole in the tenon 
slightly nearer the shoulder of the tenon than the 



184 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

measurement of the hole thru the mortise would suggest. 
The purpose of drawboring is to insure the mortised 
member being pulled up snugly -against the shoulders of 
the tenoned member. The amount of offset in draw- 
boring is determined by the size of the members. In 
barn framing, where a tenon would be 2" thick by 6" 
wide by 6" long, the center in the tenon for the pin hole 
is drawn toward the tenon shoulder about jj\". 

168. Coped Joint. — In fitting one irregular member 
against another the mitered joint is not always satis- 
factory. A more frequent form is the coped joint. This 
form of joint is especially suited to internal angle work, 
as in placing base boards and base mold. 

To form this joint, (1) saw the ends of one member 
square and fit snugly to the corner just as if no other 
member were to be fitted there. (2) Place the second 
member in the miter-box and saw the end which is to 
fit into that corner, mitering with the bevel or slope on 
the face of the molding. The intersection of this slope 
or bevel with the face of the molding indicates the line 
along which the molding is to be ''backed." Backing- 
consists in cutting away the beveled surface straight 
across the molding with a slight undercut to insure the 
faces fitting. (3 )This backing is best done with t 
fine-bladed coping saw. 



CHAPTER V. 



Wood-Turning. 



169. Turning Between Centers. — Stock used in turn- 
ing between centers should be approximately square in 
cross-section. Should the stock be much .greater than 
three inches square it is safer 




Fig. 283. Centering Stock 
BY Diagonals. 



for beginners to remove the 
arrises, thus forming an oc- 
tagonal section, before begin- 
ning to turn. 

170. Centering the Stock. — (1) To center stock, either 
square or rectangular in section, draw the diagonals on 
each of the two ends, Fig. 283. Stock which 
is irregular in cross-section is scribed as in 
Fig. 284. The dividers are set to the ap- 
proximate distance of the center from any 
one side and the end scribed as shown. If 
no plane table is near upon which to lay the 
stock in scribing, the same result may be 
accotuplished by dropping the one point of 
the dividers over the arris along which the 
scribing is being done, stock and dividers 
being held freely in the hands, Fig. 285. (2) 
Place the stock on the live or spur center. 
The most common way of doing this consists in placing 
the center of the end, as indicated by the intersection of 
the diagonals, against the spur center and driving against 
the other end of the stock with a mallet until the spurs 




Fig. 284. 

Centering 

Irregular 

Stock. 



185 



186 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




Fig. 285. 
Centering Stock. 



penetrate the wood to a depth of about iV''- I" hard 
Avood, a seat iiuist be made for the spurs or spur center. 
This is done by making a saw kerf along -each of the 
diagonals or by boring a small shallow 
hole at their intersection. 

A second method of placing the 
block on the live center differs from 
this one only in that the pounding is 
done off the lathe, a special live center 
being kept for this purpose, the pound- 
ing being done on the center instead 
of on the block or stock. The advan- 
tage of this latter method consists in its saving the lathe 
head and bearings the jar of the blows struck by the 
mallet on the end of the stock. The disadvantage lies in 
the fact that spur centers are seldom exactly alike and, 
for accurate work, it is best to make use only of the spur 
marks of the center which is to be used on that particular 
lathe. (3) After the live centers are once set in the end 
of the stock, so mark the center and the eiid of the stock 
that, should it become 
necessary at any time to 
remove and replace the 
stock, the spurs may be 
given the same relative 
positions. This is es- 
pecially advisable where 
stock is removed between 
class periods to be re- 
placed at the next period. 

It is essential, of course, that centers l)e marked and kept 
only on the lathes for which they are marked. (4) Draw 
the tailstock u|) to within several inches of the stock and 
fasten it to the lathe bed firmly by means of the tailstock 




Fig. 286. Oiling Dead Center. 



WOOD-TURNING. 



187 



7^ 



clamp. (5) Screw up the dead spindle until the cup- 
center has been forced into the wood a good 3^2''- (6) 
Withdraw the cup-center slightly and 
place a few drops of lubricating oil on 
it and the wood, Fig. 286. The oil _.^:'I.. 
might have been placed on the end of 
the stock before its insertion in the 

lathe. , (7) Rotate the stock several ^^^- ^^• 

. • 1 1-^1 11 Adjusting Tool Rest 

tunes by revolvuig^ the cone pulley, tt 

■^ . ^ r J f PQjj Height. 

before throwmg on the power. Other- 
wise the binding of the stock may throw the belt off. As 
a further precaution, take hold of the belt and see if the 

stock will revolve without 
the belt's slipping. If it does 
not, release the dead spindle 
slightly and try the belt 
again. It may be necessary 
to unscrew the spindle 
slightly again before the 
wood will revolve freely. 
(8) Adjust the spindle 
clamp carefully. 

171. Adjusting the Tool 
Rest. — B efore power is 
turned on, the tool rest must 
be clamped in a safe position. 
Fig. 287. A lathe has a 
maximum speed of about 
3,000 R. P. M., and a loose 
rest at any time is a dan- 
gerous thing. Never at- 
tempt to adjust a rest with 
the lathe in motion, and uneven stock between centers. 
Stop the lathe. 




Fig. 288. 
Posture at the Lathe. 



188 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



Adjust the rest so that its top is slightly above centers, 
about y to Y\ keeping it parallel to the stock to be 
turned, and al)out Y' away from the farthest projecting 
arris on the stock. The height of rest is governed by the 
height of the worker relati^•e to the lathe. An easy 
position is the controlling factor. Revolve the stock by 
pulling the belt or moving the cone to see that the rest 
is safely placed. Throw the power on slowly, giving the 
lathe an opportunity to "speed up" before applying full 
power. 

172. Position of the Operator. — The position of an 
operator at a lathe should l)e one that will produce 
facility, stability and comfort. Fig. 288 illustrates a good 
position in general. The feet should be well apart to give 
stability. The tool rest, if the adjustment above center 
is too high or too low to allow the hand to rest com- 
fortably beside the body, should be changed. The body 
should be turned slightly so that the left side of the 
worker is a little nearer the lathe than the right. 




Fig. 289. Position of Hands on Gouge — First Position. 



173. Use of the Large Gouge. — The large turning 
gouge is used for making the first or roughing-off cuts. 
It is also used to reduce the cylinder to its approximate 
diameter. The lathe should be run on low speed until 
the arrises are removed and the cvlindrical form obtained. 



WOOD-TURNING. 



189 



With the handle of the gouge held firmly, but not 
rigidly in the right hand, against the body ; and the 




Fig. 290. Position of Hands on Gouge — Second Position. 

left hand against the rest, and grasping the blade, as in 
Fig. 289, with the wrist dropped to allow the hand to act 
as a sliding guide along 
the rest, the fingers en- 
circling the tool ; push 
the tool slowly toward 
the revolving stock. 
Begin the cut some- 




FiG. 291. Correct Position of Gouge 
in Roughing Off. 



where near the middle 
of the length of the 
stock and carry the tool along and out beyond the end. 
Next, holding the tool as in Fig. 290, work toward the 

second end. Continue in this man- 
ner until the stock has been reduced 
to within y of the final diameter. 

The gouge, like other edged tools, 
works best when held so as to pro- 
duce a shearing cut. This is secured 
by rolling the blade slightly on the 
rest as in Fig. 291, and holding the 
cutting edge high up on the cylinder. When turning to- 
ward the other end of the stock the gouge is rolled in 




Fig. 292. Incorrect 

Position of Gouge in 

Roughing Off. 



190 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

the opposite direction. Fig. 292 illustrates a position 

often assumed by beginners. This position of the tool 

causes it to scrape instead of cut and the edge to be dulled 

in a short time. If a gouge is properly ground the cutting 

angle is not obtuse enough to serve as a scraping edge. 

Once a cylindrical surface has been formed, a quick 

way to locate the position of the gouge with reference to 

the revolving surface is to place the tool with its bevel 

or grind rubbing the wood, then gently lift the right hand 

until the edge begins to cut, after which it is to be moved 

to the right or left slowly and uniformly. 

To prevent a ''bite'' (the catching of the tool in the 

wood so as to throw the tool out of position and a piece 

out of the stock) see that the tool is resting firmly upon 

the toolrest before attempting the cut. Also see that the 

rest is moved to within y of the cylindrical surface after 

the arrises have been removed from the square. These 

precautions, with the cutting edge properly placed, ought 

to prevent trouble. 

174. Use of the Outside Calipers. — Until the beginner 

has secured a slight mastery of his tools he can hardly 

be expected to work to a fixed 

and final dimension. He should, 

however, begin quickly to make 

an effort to work to a fixed or 

predetermined dimension. After 

Fig. 293. ^^le arrises are removed he 

Setting the Calipers. . i i ^ ^i i- . -r^. 

should set the calipers as m rig. 

293 to a dimension somewhat smaller than that of the 
cylinder just obtained and practice reducing the cylinder 
to this dimension with a smooth surface from end to end 
of the project. The skew should be used for this smooth- 
ing. Caliper the cylinder as the work progresses. 'Wood- 
turners caliper while the stock is revolving, by holding 




WOOD-TURNING. 



191 



the instrument at right angles to the line of centers, 
touching the work lightly and carefully so that the leg of 
the caliper on the near side may not be carried over the 
diameter thru friction. The be- 
ginner had better stop his lathe 
to do this calipering, Fig. 294. In 
no case should the calipers be 
forced over the work, but the work 
should be reduced until they may 
be passed over the diameter with- 
out any pressure whatsoever, just 
touching at both legs. 

After the worker has repeated 
this operation several times and 
finds he can work to a calipered 




Fig. 294. 
Calipering the Stock. 



diameter with some degree of 



assurance, he should set his calipers for the final diameter 
and work to the same. 




Fig. 295. Using Large Skew — First Position. 



175. Use of the Large Skew. — The large skew" is to 
be held as in Figs. 295 and 296. This tool is to be used 
to smooth the surface of a cylinder after the gouge has 
roughed it ofif. Fig. 297 shows in greater detail this tool 
when in cutting position. Begin the cut several inches 
13 



192 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



from an end and carry it toward and out over the op- 
posite end. Never begin right at an end or the tool will 
catch in the wood and split it or possibly throw the tool 

from the hands of the worker. 
The simplest way to get the 
skew in proper cutting position 
is (1) to lay it flat upon the tool 
rest and upon the cylinder wnth 
the cutting edge safely above 
the cylinder's surface, Fig. 298- 
a. (2) Allowing the tool to 
slide freely thru the left hand, 
draw the right hand and the 
tool down and back gradually 
until it has a position similar 
to that in Fig. 298-b. (3) 
Swing the right hand and the 
tool to the right or the left, Fig. 297, front view, depend- 
ing upon the direction the cutting is to take, and (4) lift 
the hand slowly until 
the edge begins to 
cut, Fig. 298c. (5) 
Holding this position 
move the tool slowly 




Fig. 296. Using Large 
Skew — Second Position. 




Fig. 297. Detail of Position of Skew. 




a b " c 

Fig. 298. Successive Placings of Skew for Position. 
and uniformly along the rest and the cylinder. Do not 
move the feet but let the body move, with the ankles as 
pivots, in the direction of the cutting. 



WOOD-TURNING. 



193 



The secret of safe cutting with the skew lies in main- 
taining the angles just sugested with reference to the 
front and side views, and in raising the handle just 
sufficient to allow the edge to cut without further raising 
the heel of the bevel or grind from the surface of the 
wood. To raise the handle higher is to remove the heel 
from contact with the surface of the cylinder and thereby 
destroy the working fulcrum used 
in regulating the amount of cut, 
resulting in a "bite." Obviously, 
if the cutting at any time is be- 
coming too deep the edge may be 
raised and the cut made shallower 
by lowering the right hand and 
the tool handle a little. 




Fig. 299. Parting Tool 
Cuttings for Diameter. 



176. Cutting Off; Use of Parting Tool.— The parting 
or cutting-off tool is used for two purposes: (1) with 
the aid of calipers, to determine quickly the approximate 
diameters desired for a part or parts of a piece of spindle 
turning, Fig. 299 ; (2) to part or cut ofT the stock at any 




Fig. 300. Using the Parting Tool. 



desired point. In either case the manipulation of the tool 
is the same. 

This is a scraping tool. When so used the blade is 



194 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




Fig. 301. Detail of 
Parting Tool Positions. 



held in a horizontal position, the narrow edge upon the 
rest and the point of the tool a little above the line of 
centers. The tool is pushed forward into the stock, Fig. 
300. 

The Y' scraping- tool may be used in a similar manner 
for this same purpose. In using this tool it is advisable 
to make the groove slightly wdder than the tool to pre- 
vent its heating thru friction. 

^-^^ The parting tool will make 

more of a cutting and less of a 
scraping action if held as in Fig. 
301 with the lower bevel more 
nearly tangent to the surface at 
the bottom of the cut. This will 
necessitate starting the cut with 
ihe handle low and raising it as the point of the tool 
approaches the center of the cylinder. 

In cutting to length, leave jV'' betw^een the line and 
the groove made by the cutting-ofif tool, to be dressed up 
later by means of the small skew. 

In laying off lengths, see that enough stock is left at 
the live center to insure the part- 
ing tool's not striking the re- 
volving spurs. If enough stock is 
left, the parting tool may be in- 
serted so as to leave a f diam- 
eter ; this may be reduced still 
further when the main part of the 
turning has been completed and the greatest strain re- 
moved. 

Fig. 302 illustrates the manner of laying off lengths. 
A very sharp pencil is held at the desired point as in- 
dicated by the rule and pressed gently against the re- 
volving stock. 




Fig. 302. Laying Off 
Successive Measure- 
ments. 



WOOD-TURNING. 



195 



177. Use of the Toe of the Skew to Dress Off an End. 

— The small skew is to be used in dressing off the end of 
the cylinder after the parting tool has prepared the way. 
Hold the tool as in Figs. 303 or 304. The essential thing 
in this operation is that the grind or bevel of the skew 

adjacent the end being cut, 
shall lie very nearly parallel 





Fig. 303. Use of Small Skew 

IN Squaring End at 

Live Center. 



to the end surface of the cvl- ^^^^ ^O^- Use of Small Skkw 
. , ™, 1111-". IN Squaring End at 

nider. There should be just ^^^^ ^^^^^^ 

enough inclinaton from this 

l)lane to allow the toe of 

the skew to cut, with the heel of the grind so placed 

against the surface of the cylinder that it may be used 

as a fulcrum in manipulating the cutting edge of the 

toe of the skew when striving for light or heavy shaving. 

Care must be taken in using the heel of the grind as a 

fulcrum not to allow the cutting edge on the heel of the 

skew to come in contact with the surface of the cylinder 

end, or a ''run" will result. The forces involved here 

are somewhat subtle and the student will need to 



196 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



IS 



exercise patience with careful thought. In Fig. 305 
shown in detail the position of the skew and the direction 

of movenient in the ver- 
J~|_J i y^ ^, tical plane taken to keep 

^^hj ) y^-^^y ^-'^''^ the cutting edge of the 

-— skew toward the center of 
the cylinder. About tjV" 
should be taken at each 




Fig. 305. Detail of Position of 

Skew and Direction of Movement 

IN Squaring an End. 



cut. 

The end of the cylinder 
may be the more com- 
pletely surfaced with the 
skew if some more of the waste stock is removed as in 
Fig. 306. This half V-cut is made by inclining the skew 
so that the grind or bevel farthest removed from the end 
surface of the cylinder shall parallel the proposed surface 
of the V with just sufficient variation to cause the toe of 
the skew to cut, and still prevent the heel from catching. 
The heel of the grind, as heretofore, serves as a fulcrum. 
This V-cut is made after each end cut, which is forced 
below the surface of the end 
slightly, until the diameter 
on small projects is reduced 
to about y at the live center 
and slightly less at the dead 
center. The amateur had 
better stop the lathe and re- 
move the waste ends by 
means of the chisel or a 

knife, after securing the instructor's permission. An ex- 
perienced lathe man would spread his left hand about the 
project and, inserting the chisel with the right hand, 
would cut the cylinder free at the live end while the lathe 
is in motion. 




Fig. 306. 
Removing Waste Stock. 




ca 




WOOD-TURNING. 197 

178. Heel of the Skew Used to Cut to a Shoulder.— 

In the forming of a shoulder the vertical cuts are made 

as just described in the preceding- section. The horizontal 

cuts, however, while made with the skew, differ somewhat 

from those used in plain cylinder surface work. The 

skew is placed upon the tool rest in the manner described 

for the starting position of the skew in plain surface 

work, the heel toward 

the shoulder, and then 

the blade is drawn 

down and back until 

the heel is over the 

point of tangency be- ^^^' "^ '• 

,1 , 1 Cutting Shoulder with Skkw. 

tween the skew and 

cylinder. When this position is secured the handle of 

the skew is raised and moved to the right or left just 

enough to allow it to cut lightly as the tool is moved 

along the rest. Fig. 307. 

179. Long Taper Cuts. — The large gouge is used in 
the usual manner to rough out the approximate shape of 
the taper. The skew is used to smooth this surface in a 
manner quite similar to its use on plain cylinder work, 
but with one important difference — the taper cut is begun 
with the heel of the skew, the skew being held as in cut- 
ting to a shoulder horizontally. After the taper has been 
started, the skew may be drawn a little farther down 
and back, until the cut is being taken at the usual point 
of contact in large skew surface smoothing. Fig. 297. Or, 
if one prefers, the full length of the taper may be cut with 
the skew held as in the starting position, with the heel 
alone. In cutting- with the heel alone one must be watch- 
ful that he does not take a deeper cut in the middle of the 
length of the taper than he intended. The heel enters so 
readily that the beginner might better strive for a 



198 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



shallower depth at the middle than he realizes he has 
need of. The cutting must take place from the shallower 
toward the deeper part of the taper cut always, of course. 
180. Laying Off Consecutive Measurements. — Where 
a number of like spindles are to be turned, consecutive 
measurements are best transfered to the stock from a 
piece of thin wood or from cardboard with a straight edge, 
the measurements having been previously placed along 
the edge with a sharp pencil or an awl. A more per- 




FiG. 308. Cutting V-Grooves. 



manent templet, and one from which the measurements 
are more quickly transfered, is obtained by driving small 
brads into the edge of the wood at the points required, 
snipping off the heads and filing the projecting ends to 
sharp marking points. This templet is pressed against 
the revolving stock insuring similar markings for the 
various pieces to be turned. 

181. Making Full V-Grooves. — A little experience 
will have been ol^tained in the use of the skew in the 
making of the semi V-grooves in dressing off the 
cylinder ends. In full V work, it is much better to make 
use of the heel of the skew, the small skew being used. 
When the heel is used the cutting edge is better sup- 



WOOD-TURNING. 



199 




Detail of Cutting V- 
Grooves. 



ported on the grind or bevel and a shearing cut is ob- 
tained. 

(1) Hold the blade between the thumb and the last 
three fingers, Fig. 308. (2) The dimensions having 
been previously laid off on the stock, a rather deep cut 
is made with the heel of the skew on the line which 
indicates the proposed bottom of the depression. In 
making this cut care must be taken not to burn the 
cutting edge by too continuous a pressure. (3) The 
side or bevel of the V is 



begun with the extreme 

obtuse cutting angle of 

the heel, Fig. 309. Only 

one-half of the V should 

be cut at a time. With Fig. 309 

the completion of this half 

the remaining half may be cut down by reversing the 

position of the chisel. By this method of cutting the 

junction of the two surfaces of the V will be true to 

measurement. 

In cutting V's it will be found easier if the skew is 
given a "pump handle" or "hinged" movement as in- 
dicated by the arrows in Fig. 309. This movement con- 
sists in placing the tool well up on the work and, using 
the rest as a fulcrum, raising the handle until the heel of 
the skew enters the surface to the depth wanted. As in 
all other cutting with the skew, the grind or bevel next 
the surface being cut must be used as a fulcrum by 
which to regulate the depth of the cut, without, at the 
same time, allowing the full edge to catch and cause a 
run. It must be remembered that a point will not *'run," 
either heel or toe ; it is only when the entire cutting edge 
is allowed to become engaged that trouble ensues. Yet, 
on the other hand, the tool must not be placed so as to 



200 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




engage too little of the point by throwing the grind too 
far from parallelism with the surface being cut, for then 
a smooth surface w^ould not be possible nor would there 
be sufficient bearing of the heel of the 
grind to serve as a fulcrum in guiding 
the point. This balance must be 
learned by practice, but a careful analy- 
sis and understanding of the facts will 
aid wonderfully. 

182. Short Convex Cuts; Beads. — 

In turning short, convex curves or 

beads, (T) a deep vertical cut is made 

Fk;. 310. Using Toe at the place the two curved surfaces 

OF Skew in Making ^jh eventually roll together. The 

Preparatory Cut. r , . , , . ^ ^ . . , . , 

manner of maknig this cut is identical 

with that used in making the first vertical cut preparatory 
to making the V-groove. Also this cut may be made by 
inserting the toe of the skew as in Fig. 310. (2) \\\X\\ 
the length of the tool at right angles to the line of 
centers, place the small skew flat upon its side and well 
up on the cylinder and rotate the blade, cutting with the 
heel, until it assumes successively the positions indicated 
in Fig. 311. As the 

curve is being cut, nfm fTi^m 
the tool must be 
drawn backward 
as shown by its 
position on the 
stock at the begin- 
ning and at the 
end of the cut. 

This is done to permit the grind to maintain its tangency 
with the curve. The positions of the hands in this work 




V-J 






Fig. 311. Making Short Convex Cuts. 



WOOD-TURNING. 



201 




Fig. 312. 
Starting Short Concave Cut. 



are similar to those assumed in the making of V-grooves, 
Sec. 181. 

183. Concave Cuts. — Short concave- curves are made 
with the small gouge, the hands being placed upon the 
tool and rest as described in 
Sec. 181. It is very essential 
for proper concave cutting 
that the gouge be properly 
shaped ; the student is re- 
ferred to Sec. 84 for informa- 
tion as to the proper shape 
of the cutting end. 

(1) Rough out the approximate shape of the cut by 
pushing the gouge, while lying on the rest in a horizontal 
position with the hollow uppermost, into the wood well 
within the lines limiting the sides of the cut, Fig. 312. 

(2) Roll the tool over until the grind is 
at right angles to the surface of the wood 
w4th one lip touching the wood. Fig. 313. 

(3) Roll the tool until it assumes the 
position shown in Fig. 314. The effect of 
this rolling should be to bring the grind 
against the surface already cut and thus 
make this grind serve as the fulcrum by 
means of wdiich the cutting edge of the 
gouge may be regulated as to depth of 
cut. (4) The gouge is pushed forward 
as it is rolled over, being directed toward 
the line of centers. (5) Cut with 

the grain only, that is, cut to the bottom of the groove 
only and reverse the position of the tool to cut the re- 
maining arc. (6) Cut alternately, beginning each cut 
at the surface of the cylinder, and continue until the limit 




Gouge in Short 
Concave Cuts. 



202 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




lines are reached. (7) The accuracy of the arc may be 
tested by placing the square as in Fig. 315. 

184. Long Convex Cuts. — To turn spindle forms in- 
volving long convex curves, (1) rough off the stock to 

the largest diameter, using the 
large gouge. (2) Lay off the 
longitudinal dimensions upon 
this cylinder. (3) With the 
parting tool determine the 
Fig. 314. Final Position of diameters. (4) Rough out 
jouge IN Short Concave Cuts. • , , , ,r\ 

with the large gouge. (5) 

Finish with the small gouge. Place the thumb in the 

hollow^ and encircle the blade with the three fingers, the 

index finger being hooked under the tool rest and the 

blade firmly upon the rest. (6) Make the cut wdth the 

lip of the tool and keep the grind tangent to the surface 

being cut, quite like that observed in concave cutting. 

Swing the handle 

in the direction of 

the cutting that 

this tangency may 

b e maintained. 

Fig. 316. The 

skew might have 

been used for this 

work. 

185. Face-Plate 
and Chuck Work. 
— I n face-plate 
and chuck turning, 
the scraping tools 

are made use of l)ecause the cutting tools would be 
certain to catch and "run." This difference is due to the 
fact that in face-plate and chuck work the stock is placed 




Fig. 315. Testing Concave Cut. 



WOOD-TURNING. 



203 




Fig. 316. Long Convex Cutting. 



in the lathe with the grain of the wood extending at an 
angle with reference to the line of centers, entirely 
different from that which it has in spindle turning, as a 
rule. 

The skew and gouge 
used in spindle turning 
might be made use of 
for scraping in face- 
plate and chuck work. 
It is better, however, 
where the expense of 
the additional tools is 
not an item, to make 
use of the scraping 
tools described in Sec. 46. The cutting Avedge of the skew 
is not obtuse enough to withstand the eff'ect of scraping 
and remain in condition for further effective spindle turn- 
ing. Then, too, a scraping tool cuts best when given, a 
scraping burr, a thing which would ruin a skew for 

spindle work. 

186. Face-Plates; Prepa- 
ration of the Stock. — Each 
lathe is, as a rule, provided 
with several face-plates. 
These should be numbered 
-) to correspond with the num- 
ber of the lathe to which 
they belong and should not 
be used on any other lathe. 

The center screw face- 
plate has a fixed screw at its 
center. This is for use with stock 4'' in diameter or 
under. For stock of greater diameter a surface plate 
must be used. The surface face-plate has holes drilled at 




C 



1' 



r^ 



Fig. 317. , 
Face Plates — Center Screw 
AND Surface. 



204 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

various places over its face, thru which screws may be 
inserted, then into the stock. There is usually a hole in 
the center of the surface face-plate thru which a screw 
may be inserted, making it equally suited for center screw 
work. Fig. 317. When turning stock with a diameter of 
from 4 to 6 inches, the second speed should be used for 
roughing off and the highest speed for finishing. For 
stock with a diameter over 6 inches, the slow speed 
should be used for roughing off and a second or third 
speed for finishing. 

For both large and small face-plate turning it is safer 
to remove the surplus stock, the coi-ners, before at- 
taching the piece to the lathe. (1) With the dividers 
describe a circle somewhat larger than the finished diam- 
eter is to be, about ^" larger. (2) Saw to this line, mak- 
ing use of the band-saw, or the bow-saw if no band-saw 
is available. 

(3) If the stock is of soft wood and under four inches 
in diameter, place the center screw face-plate on the lathe 
and then attach the stock to the center-screw by press- 
ing firmly upon the w^ood while turning it. If hard wood 
is to be used, a small hole must be bored so that the core 
of the screw may enter. ■ This method of fastening stock 
to the face-plate is appropriate, of course, only where the 
project is of such shape that the center screw will not 
interfere with the work of turning, and on small work. 
The center screw may l^e used upon larger work but an 
additional screw, or screws must be made use of. Where 
screws are inserted thru the plate other than at the 
center, care must be taken to place them so that they 
will not come in contact with the scraping tools while 
turning. The surface of the stock which is to come in 
contact with the face-plate must l)e planed true before 
attaching it. The reason is obvious. 



WOOD-TURNING. 



205 



Where it is necessar}^ to cut entirely thru a piece of 
stock that is fastened to a face-plate it is necessary to 
*'back" the stock by the insertion of a piece of stock, 
usually about \" in thickness, between the face-plate and 
the stock. In some cases this backing- is surfaced true 
on only one side ; then this side is fastened to the face- 
plate and the second side surfaced with the scraping 
tools. This backing allows the tool to cut entirely thru 
the project without coming in contact with the metal of 
the face-plate, Fig. 318-a. Backing is also used where 
the project to be turned is too thin for the insertion of 
screws, or where it is desired to increase the working 
surface of the face-plate. Fig. 318-b and c. In the first 
case the screws are inserted entirely thru the backing 
and then into the project, holes being bored thru the 



a 



1 



E^ 




Fig. 318. Backing for Face- Plate Work. 






backing at places appropriate to the screw holes in the 
face-plate, the shape of the project being considered in 
determining which holes in the face-plate shall be used. 
In the second case the screws are inserted in the l^acking 
only, the project being glued to the backing after the 
backing has been faced off. The manner of fastening the 
third type is clearly indicated in the drawing. 

For accurate face-plate turning there should be no 
end "play" in the live spindle. All good lathes are made 
with adjustable bearings and, should the student find he 



206 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



can move the cone and spindle endwise in the headstock, 
he should report the matter to his instructor for direc- 
tions as to the remedy. 




Fig. 319. Face- Plate Work. 



187. Rough Scraping.— (1) With the stock to be 
turned upon the face-plate and in the lathe, the tail stock 
well out of the way, move the tool rest to within -J'' of, 
and as nearly parallel to, the surface to be turned as 
possible, Fig. 319. The tool rest should be raised to such 
a level that the operator cuts along a horizontal line 
passing thru the center of the revolving stock. (2) Use 
the wide square-nosed scraping chisel, 
holding it in a horizontal position. Begin 
at the center and move it toward the left 
slowly and uniformly. (3) Test the face 
by placing a straight-edge across it. (4) 
The corners having been previously cut 
off, the diametral dimension may next be 
secured. Figs. 320 and 321 illustrate two 
Fig. 320. Turning different methods. In the first, the rest 
TO Diameter. j^, swung around as in spindle turning 
and the edge is scraped by means of the broad square- 
nosed chisel. In Fig, 321, the tool rest is swung at an 
angle with reference to the line of centers and the spear 




WOOD-TURNING. 



207 



point tool is made use of, being held so that one of its 
scraping edges shall move at right angles to the line of 
centers, or square across the stock. (5) Care must be 
taken in all center-screw face- 
plate turning not to allow the tool 
to "dig," and not to scrape too 
strongly, or the project will be 
turned up on the screw so that the 
wood screw threads will be des- 
troyed, and the stock will fall Fig. 321. Turning to 

r J.^ ^ .^ DiAMETER — SeCOND MeTHOD. 

irom the lathe. 

188. Convex and Concave Scraping. — Convex sur- 
faces, such as beads, are best scraped by means of the 
square-nosed chisel or else the spear point, Figs. 322 and 





Fig. 322. Convex Scraping with Square Nose Scraper. 

323. The direction of movement of the tool is indicated 
in the drawing, the movement being either to the right 
or to the left as required. 




Fig. 323. Convex Scraping with Spear-Point Chisel. 



In concave scraping the round-nosed tool is to be 
used. This is forced into the wood to the approximate 

14 



208 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




depth and then worked to the right and to the left, work- 
ing from the deepest part out, Fig. 324. 

189. Chucks; Their Use. — The processes of turning 
and scraping so far described, presuppose projects of such 
construction that there will be surfaces 
into which screws may be fastened 
without injury to the completed result. 
There are some kinds of work, how- 
ever, which must have both surfaces or 
edges worked with the lathe tools. 
Rings, spheres, etc., are standard 
examples. With such projects, chucks must be made use 
of. Chucks are no more nor less than pieces of soft 
wood, such as white pine, so shaped that the partially 
turned project may be held thereby and the rest of it 
turned without injury. 

Chucks are, in general, of two kinds, recessed and 
spindle, Fig. 325. In the recessed chuck a depression is 



Fig. 324. 
Concave Scraping 




Fig. 325. Turning a Ring — First Method. 



made slightly deeper than half the thickness of the 
project to be held. The project must fit against the 
bottom of the depression and snugly enough at the sides 
so that it shall not move when the scraping tool is ap- 
plied. In the spindle chuck the spindle is turned to such 
a diameter that the internal opening of the project may 
fit quite snugly and not permit the project to move on 
the chuck while turning. In either case the project is to 
be held in place by what is known in the machine shop 



WOOD-TURNING. 



209 



as a "press fit," a fit made in this case by firm pressure 
of the hand. 

The exact details of preparing the stock for chucking 
will be found to vary with different turners. For example, 



C2J} 





Fig. 326. Turning a Ring — Second Method. 

consider the turning of a ring. Fig. 325 shows steps 
which may be taken. Fig. 326, a, b, c, d, shows another 
way. Fig. 327 illustrates a third way. Any one of these 
methods would be considered good practice. In all three 
ways will be seen certain essentials. After the ring has 
been turned to a square section the next essential step 
is in making out of this square section an octagonal one, 
a process made use of in joinery, forging, etc., where a 
square is to be formed into a circular section. 



K_J 




Fig. 327. Turning a Ring — Third Method. 

In the method illustrated in Fig. 325 a face-plate is 
made use of which is sufificiently small to allow the outer 
edge of the ring to be modeled before its insertion in a 



210 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

chuck. The stock at the center is removed no more than 
is necessary to allow the outer edge to be rounded over. 
This center is removed just before chucking. In modeling 
the outer edge a templet should be made use of as in 
Fig. 326. 

In Fig. 326 the ring is chucked as soon as the square 
section is completed on the face-plate. The templet to 
be used here in connection v^ith the chuck work would 
be but one-fourth of a circle. 

In Fig. 327 the ring is three-fourths completed in con- 
tour before being chucked. . This is made possible thru 
using a much thicker piece of stock than is used in either 
of the other methods, the ring being separated from the 
remainder of the stock by means of the parting tool as 
shown. This extra thickness of stock would prove a 
serious drawback to this method were the wood being 
turned expensive. 

In turning such projects as napkin rings, a chuck will 
be used to hold the stock when boring out the center. A 
mandrel may be used to hold the ring after it is bored. 
(1) Place the stock between centers and turn it to the 
approximate external diameter at its largest point. (2) 
Chuck one end and bore the other to a depth slightly 
over half way. Boring is merely end scraping, the tool 
rest being placed at right angels to the line of centers 
and the tool held parallel to the line of centers. (3) 
Remove, and chuck the second end and complete the 
boring. This boring should be carefully done so that the 
project may fit the mandrel neatly. (4) Prepare a 
mandrel by turning a piece of stock between centers until 
it has a diameter suitable for the placing of the ring, 
one that will hold the -ring in place during the turning 
of its convex or external surface. (5) Place the ring 
upon the mandrel and complete the turning, Fig. 328. 



WOOD-TURNING. 



211 




Fig. 328. 
Mandrel Work. 



Another example of chucking is to be seeti in the pro- 
cess of turning a sphere. (1) The sphere is turned 
between centers, being made as 
nearly spherical as possible, Fig. 
329. A templet may be made and 
used to test. (2) The stock is re- 
moved from the lathe centers and 
the dead and live ends cut off. (3) 
A chuck like that shown in Fig. 330 
may be prepared. As in other 
chucks the project must be held 
snugly at its circumference and have its inner surface 
resting against the bottom of the depression of the chuck. 

Fig. 331 shows a chuck in which the 
ball is recessed only about one- 
fourth of its diameter, instead of 
being recessed slightly over one-half 
as in the case of the first chuck 
shown. The sphere is held in place 
here by drawing up the tail stock 
and placing a piece of leather between the cup center and 
the project. This leather will revolve and prevent any 




Fig. 329. 
Turning Sphere 
Between Centers. 




Fig. 330. 

Chucking a Sphere 

— First Method. 




Fig. 331. 
Chucking a Sphere- 
Second Method. 



injury to the surface of the sphere. (4) The essential 
thing in the case of either kind of chuck is the movement 
of the sphere in the chuck made at various stages of the 
turning process. 



This movement consists in turning the 



212 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

sphere slightly, never more than thru an arc of 45°, taking 
off a shallow scraping, then shifting again in the same 
direction. As the ball grows smaller thru successive 
scrapings the chuck will need to be made deeper to hold 
it. (5) Since the turning between centers made the ball 
or sphere circular in section across the grain, it must be 
placed in the chuck first so that it may be rounded up in 
the opposite direction. The secret of success lies in the 
frequent shifting of the sphere in the chuck, after each 
slight scraping, with thought or method as to the 
direction this shifting is made to take. 

190. Sandpapering and Finishing. — If the work has 
been well done, the tools properly sharpened and properly 
used, very little sandpapering will ever need to be done. 
If edged tools or scraping burrs are not producing smooth 
surfaces they should be attended to at once so that wdiat 
sandpapering is needed may be done with paper of fine 
grit. Paper left from joinery sanding, worn paper, is 
better than fresh paper for this work. If new paper is 
used, it must be moved back and forth slowly that 
scratches may not be produced on the surface of the 
w^ork. Do not make use of high speed in sanding for 
fear of burning or scorching the wood. 

If the wood to be finished is coarse grained, such as 
oak, it should be filled with a paste filler in the usual 
manner of applying paste fillers. After the filler has 
flatted, the piece may be placed in the lathe, run on low 
speed, and the filler rubbed into the open grain and off 
the highlights, a soft pad being used. Finish the rubbing 
w^ith a cloth. A second coat may be applied in the same 
manner after a wait of twenty-four hours. Sometimes 
a third coat is required in order to bring the smoothness 
desired. On close grained Avood such filling is not 
necessary. 



WOOD-TURNING. 



213 



For a waxed finish, apply a coating- of wax to the pro- 
ject, by means of the fingers or a cloth. Allow this to 
stand five or ten minutes; then start the lathe at low 
speed and polish by holding a soft cloth against the re- 
volving stock. Another coat may be applied in the same 
manner after a wait of an hour. 

A shellac finish, somewhat similar to that known as 
French polish, is obtained as follows: (1) Turn the 
lathe with the hand and apply a coat of shellac to the 




Fig. 332. Shellacking and Polishing. 



project. (2) ' Allow it to set for five or ten minutes, or 
until the shellac is dry enough to sandpaper. (3) Sand 
lightly with worn or No. 00 paper. (4) Moisten a piece 
of soft cotton cloth with a little thin shellac. (5) Hold 
this against the revolving project with a light but firm 
and uniform pressure, moving the pad slowly to and fro 
across the project, Fig. 332. A drop or two of linseed or 
machine oil placed on the pad will assist in causing the 
shellac to flow properly. An excess of oil, however, will 
destroy the possibility of a permanent gloss. (6) Should 
the shellac have a tendency to ''pile up" it may be re- 
moved by increasing the pressure at that point, the 
pressure causing the shellac to heat and flow. 



214 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

Some patience will be required to master this finisli. 
Once the amount of pressure and the movement is 
learned, a fine surface may be produced such as cannot 
1)e produced in any other way. 

Where a close-grained wood is used the natural color 
of the wood may be greatly enhanced by the application 
of a coat of boiled linseed oil or of paraffin oil as a first 
coat. Allow this oil to stand over night after the excess 
has been rubbed off with a clean cotton cloth. 



CHAPTER VI. 
InlayIxNG and Wood-Carving. 

191. Inlaying: General Considerations. — The process 
of inlaying" consists of setting pieces of one material into 
closely fitting recesses in a solid ground of another and 
contrasting material. Inlay is most effective as a means 
of decoration on woods of fine grain such as walnut, 
mahogany, gum, maple, etc. For the inlay, a wood of fine 
grain with little tendency to split is necessary. In all 
cases the inlay should be prepared before the recesses, 
as it is much simpler to fit the recess to the inlay than 
the reverse. 

192. Directions for Forming and Fitting Inlays of Ir- 
regular Outline. — Designs such as shown in Fig. 333 arc 
best executed in yV" white holly veneer as follows: (1) 
The required design should be carefully traced on rice 
paper or architects'. tracing paper. (2) The individual 
forms should be transferred, one by one, to the veneer 
with carbon paper. (3) With saw and chisel cut the 
pieces from the sheet of veneer and trim to exact size 
and shape with a sharp pocket knife. Straight edges may 
be planed if the size of the piece permits. Straight ends 
may be cut with a chisel. Pieces so small as to be 
difficult to hold are best worked by forming as completely 
as possible at the end of a larger piece before cutting off. 
Small, sharp curves are cut with the point of the knife, 
or, if absolutely necessary, with a jewelers' file. The 

215 



216 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



file should he used only as a last resort. Careful at- 
tention must Ije gixen the direction of the grain to avoid 
splitting delicate pieces. The edges must he straight from 
top to hottom, and should he slightly heveled to insure 




Fig. 333. Inlays of Irregular Outline. 



a close fit. (4) When all the required pieces have 1)een 
prepared it is wise to set them out in their proper rela- 
tive positions to see that they fit properly with one 
another, making any necessary corrections. 

In laying out recesses it is best to work from center 
lines wherever possible. (5) Hold the first piece to be 
inlaid, in position on the project and carefully trace 




INLAYING 4ND WOOD-CARVING. 217 

around it with a sharp, hard pencil. Great care must be 
taken that the piece does not slip while its outline is 
being- traced. Do not attempt to trace the outline directly 
from the drawing. (6) With the point of a sharp knife 
cut around this outline slightly inside the line, Fig. 334. 
(7) Remove the material between 
these cuts to a depth slightly less 
than the thickness of the .veneer 
being used. This may be done with 
the carving tools or with the knife. 

Narrow spaces are best sunk by yig. 334. Outlining. 
means of the knife, cutting in from 

the sides. Wider spaces may be scored across the grain 
with the knife point. The bottoms of these recesses need 
not be smooth ; in fact, a slight roughness is an advantage 
in that it forms a good key for the glue. The sides, how- 
ever, must be sharp and clean cut. 

(8) Place the inlay in position and fit by enlarging 
the recess until the piece can be forced into place by the 
pressure of the vise or clamps. (9) When properly 
fitted, remove the inlay with the point of a knife ; glue the 
recess thoroly, and force the inlay into place. (10) 
Proceed in like manner with the other pieces. It is not 
necessary to wait for the glue to set before going ahead 
with the other pieces. It is best to glue each piece in 
place as soon as its recess is prepared, as this lessens the 
liability of splitting out the small spaces between the 
pieces. On irregular surfaces a block may be used to 
force the inlay into position, or it may be rubbed into 
place with the face of a hammer. 

(11) After the glue has thoroly set, cut down the 
inlay flush with the surface of the ground with a plane, 
if possible, or with a flat gouge. Should this be done 
before the glue has had time to set, the inlay is apt to be 



218 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



drawn below the surface of the ground by the contraction 
due to drying. (12) The entire surface is now sand- 
papered, using- a block that the inlay and ground may be 
kept flush. 

193. Strings and Bandings. — Strings, such as shown 
in Fig. 335, are best formed by ripping strips from the 
edge of a sheet of veneer whose thickness is equal to the 
width of the required line. Double strings and bandings, 
such as those shown in Fig. 336, are built up somewhat' 















'!! 


tL-S 




Fig. 335. 
Bandings Applied. 



Fig. 336. 
Double Strings and Bandings. 



as indicated in Fig. 337. Bandings are carried in stcjck 
in the larger cities in endless varieties of condoinations 
and woods. They are sold by the yard in varying widths 
but with a uniform thickness of about yg"^ ^^^ ^t prices 
so low, because of the economy of quantity production, 
that few, even of the large commercial users of bandings, 
trouble to make up their own inlays. 



INLAYING AND WOOD-CARVING. 



219 



HOLL' 



CUTHEHf 




Finished 
c Eanding 

CUTHERE-^ -VENEER EDGES AS 

Shom 
Fig. 337. Steps in Building a Banding. 



194. Directions for Building up a Typical Banding. — 

For those schools where, for educational reasons, it is 
desired that the boys shall build their own bandings the 
following directions are given : Suppose it is desired to 
build up a banding such as that shown at C in Fig. 337. 
(1) Having deter- 
mined the length of 
banding required and 
the relative propor- 
tions of the veneers 
to be used, glue and 
clamp between 
blocks the alternate 
layers of walnut and 
holly as shown in A, 
Fig. 337. (2) After the glue on this has had time 
to set, place the stock on a circular saw and cut off 
the diagonal slabs or layers as indicated by the dotted 
lines of A, Fig. 337. (3) Sand these surfaces lightly, 
remove the dust, then glue to either side the holly 
veneer as shown at B, Fig. 337. (4) After the glue 
has hardened on these slabs, it remains to cut off" 
thin layers on the circular saw of about ^V* 3-s in- 
dicated by the dotted lines of B, Fig. 337. These layers 
are ready for insertion in the recesses made in the ground 
material. 

The ingenuity which may be exercised in the arrange- 
ment of woods and colors in building up line inlays is 
limitless. 

195. Directions for Laying Strings and Bandings. — ■ 
Strings and bandings may be laid either with gage and 
knife, or with the scratch stock. 

First Method : Lines with the grain are laid with the 
gage, the spur of which must be filed to a knife edge, as 



220 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



shown in Fig. 338. The vertical edge of the spur must 
be toward the outside of the line. Either two gages, one 



-SPUR. 




btm 



Fig. 338. 
Gage for Inlay Work. 




Fig. 339. 

Cutting Across the 

Grain. 




Fig. 340. 
Scratch Stock. 



for each side of the recess, or a mortise gage should be 
used. After scoring the lines to the necessary depth 

with the gages, the material 1)etween 

the lines is to be split out or routed 

with knife or chisel. 

Lines across the grain are cut with 

the knife held against the edge of a 
square which is firmly clamped in position as in Fig. 339. 
Curves are cut with the knife freehand, or guided by a 
templet, or with the gage, or 
with the compass, as the case 
permits. 

Second Method : The re- 
cesses may be cut with a 
scratch stock, shown in Fig. 
340, using a cutter equal in 
width to that of the required 
recess. This tool may be 
made from a block of maple, 
or from a marking gage. 
Plow bits make excellent cut- 
ters. Fig. 341 illustrates the 
manner of using this tool. 
Care must be taken to keep the head firmly pressed 




Fig. 341. Scratch in Use. 



INLAYING AND WOOD-CARVING. 



221 




Fig. 342. 
Built-Up Band- 
ings FOR CURVRD 
Work. 



against the edge of the ground material and to take light 
cuts. The cutters must be kept sharp. 

When laying bandings around curves the longitudinal 
joints should be split, in order that the sections may slip 
along each other when bent. They should, 
of course, be reglued when set in place. 
Bandings for sharp curves should be 
built up in a mold, Fig. 342. The thin 
veneers used bend quite easily, particu- 
larly if thoroly heated before gluing. For 
the wider lines use two or more thick- 
nesses of thin veneer. Only a good grade 
of hot glue should be used for this work. . 

Color in inlay is usually obtained by the use of different 
woods. Thin veneer may be colored thru by soaking in 
some of the penetrating stains now on the market. 

196. Directions for Marquetry. — A good illustration 
of marquetry, or the laying of irregular forms within ir- 
regular forms, is that shown in Fig. 343. The top of this 
jewel casket is made up of three pieces of ^^'' veneer, with 

the butterfly design mortised or 
recessed into the top veneer. 
The three part veneer is neces- 
sary, for when the top veneer 
is laid, there must be a veneer 
of corresponding thickness laid 
to the underside of the core to 
counteract the effect of the 
veneer attached to the top sur- 
face. The paneled effect of the 
top is obtained by means of a border of veneer raised iV'' 
above the ground. A good combination of woods would 
be mahogany for the ground and maple for the wings 
with rosewood borders and body. 




Fig. 343. Jewel Casket. 



222 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

(1) Fasten together three veneers of the woods just 
mentioned, iV" each in thickness, by means of a touch 
of glue at the corners. (2) Attach a blueprint of the 
butterfly to the top veneer using a touch of glue at each 
corner. (3) When the glue has set, using a fine-bladed 
coping saw, cut out the innermost outline. Next saw the 
more remote outline. Since all three pieces of veneer 
are sawed alike, the maple may be used for the centers 
of the wings, and the rosewood for the borders, and the 
mahogany for the ground. Where fine enough blade is 
not at hand a slightly thicker blade may be made to serve 
by placing the rosewood on the mahogany and the maple 
on the rosewood and inclining the blade so that the 
aperture of the mahogany will be approximately of the 
same size as that of the piece which is to fit into it when 
all are cut. (4) Shade the maple as required by dipping 
the pieces into hot sea-sand placed in a tray over a strong 
flame. A pair of tweezers will permit the pieces to be 
handled without discomfort, so that the scorching may be 
applied as desired. The wood should not be held in the 
sand long at a time or it will be burned instead of merely 
scorched. (5) Make the feelers by sharpening j^g" black 
veneer and driving this into the kerfs made by the coping 
saw at appropriate places in the ground, the sawing being 
done before the ground veneer is placed. (6) Place the 
ground and the various pieces of butterfly veneer upon a 
piece of paper, with what is to become the top side of the 
veneers next to the paper. Use a touch of glue on each to 
hold the same in place. (7) Apply plenty of glue to the 
exposed surfaces of the core and clamp all three parts 
between two thick plane blocks. This pressure will force 
the glue into the saw kerfs so that the joints are hardly 
\isible in the finished piece. (8) When the glue is 



INLAYING AND WOOD-CARVING. 



223 



hardened thoroly remove the clamps and smooth the 
surfaces. 

197. Finishing. — The inlay may be harmonized in 
tone with the ground by giving the entire project a coat 
of hot linseed oil. If the full contrast is desired the inlay 
should be given a coat of white shellac before the finish 
is applied. French polish and rubbed varnish are advised 
as finishes for inlaid work. 




Fig. 344. Appropriate Application of Inlay. 



Fig. 344 illustrates an appropriate application of inlay. 

198. Wood-Carving. — The hard woods, such as oak, 
walnut, mahogany, gum, etc., offer fewer difficulties to 
the wood-carver than do the softer woods. The latter 
tend to tear under the pressure of the tool unless it is 
perfectly sharpened. 

Carving tools must never be allowed to become dull, 
but must be kept sharp at all times. AVhen properly 
sharpened a carving tool will cut across the grain of a 
piece of soft wood without tearing, and will, leave a 
smooth and shining surface. 

199. General Directions. — The required design if it 
consists of straight lines, may be drawn upon the wood 
with a straight-edge or with the tee-square and triangle, 
but if made up largely of curved lines, it should 1:>e traced 
freehand on the work by means of carbon paper, and 
corrected if necessary with pencil. The drawing and 

15 



224 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



carbon paper may be held in place with pins or thumb- 
tacks if care is taken to stick them in the background 
spaces. 

The work to be carved must be firmly held. The vise 
may be used, or the piece may be clamped to the bench 
top, or to a carving stand, as shown in the illustrations 
which follow. These stands serve to raise the work 
above the level of the bench top and make the work much 
easier. 

The tools should be laid out on the bench top with 

the cutting edges toward the 
carver, that he may select 
the required tool without 
loss of time. 

For light work the tool is 
held as shown in Fig. 345. 
The end of the handle is held 
in the palm of the right hand 
and the blade is grasped by 
by the thumb and first two 
fingers of the left hand. For 
heavier work the blade 




Fig. 345. 
Position for Light Work. 



should be grasped in the palm of the left hand as shown 
in Fig. 346. In either case the right hand pushes forward 
against the resisting pressure of the left, wdiich must rest 
on or against the work or the l)ench. The pressure of 
the right hand should be just enough greater than the 
resistance of the left to force the tool slowly and firmly 
thru the wood. In no other way can the proper control 
of the tool be obtained. In making vertical cuts the 
handle is often held in the right hand as shown in Fig. 
347. The cutting Q(\i^(t is guided by the left hand, and 
the weight of the body is used in forcing the tool into the 
work. 



INLAYING AND WOOD-CARVING. 



225 



The use of the mallet is unnecessary save in large and 
deep work. In light work better results will be obtained 
by striking the tool with the heel of the palm of the 
hand as shown in Fig. 348. 

200. Line Carving. — Simple line designs, such as 
those of Fig. 349, are best executed with a "veining" tool, 
that is, a iV''> No. 2 gouge, 
held as in Fig. 345. Care 
must be taken to keep the 
angle between the tool and 
the surface of the work con- 
stant, for upon this angle de- 
pend both the width and the 
depth of the cut. Do not 
work over the lines a second 
time if it can be avoided. 

The line being followed 
should come in the middle of 
the shaving raised by the 
tool. Start all lines a little 
inside the corners, finishing 
toward the corners in all 
cases. In cutting curves the 
tool must be so held that at 
all times its center-line lies 
in a plane tangent to the 
curve at the cutting edge of 

the tool. Strive for straightness of direction and smooth- 
ness of curve, rather than at mere geometric accuracy. 

Sometimes good effects are produced by staining and 
finishing the surface of the wood before the lines are 
carved, and then refinishing the entire carved surface 
without the use of stain. This gives greater prominence 
to the lines of the design, but any inaccuracy in the cut- 




FiG. 346. 
Position for Heavy Work. 



226 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



ting is made more apparent. This method, therefore, 
should not l^e attempted until the worker has acquired 
some skill. 





Fig. 347. 
Vertical Cutting. 



Fig. 348. Using the Hand 
FOR Pounding. 




Fig. 349. Line Designs. 



INLAYING AND WOOD-CARVING. 



227 



201. Ribbon Carving. — Another simple and effective 
form of wood-carving- consists of bands or ribbons pro- 
duced by cutting a triangular groove on 
either side of a band as shown in Figs. 
350 and 351. In cutting these grooves 
make the first cut a vertical one, and 
make it a short distance outside of the 
line of the band. This is to prevent 
crushing the wood on the edge of the 
band. In detail, the steps in the cut- 
ting process are : First, make a ver- 
tical cut about iV outside of .the line Fk;. 350. Sectional 
of the band ; second, from outside of View of Ribbon 
this cut make a cut sloping toward the Carving. 

first cut at the desired angle, thus releasing a chip ; third, 





Fig. 351. Ribbon Carving. 



228 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



cut down vertically on the line of the band ; repeat the 
last two steps till the required depth is reached. 

In laying- out a design there are two methods of pro- 
cedin-e. In the first a center line, as in Fis:. 350, is the 




Fig. 352. 



Fig. 353. 



Cknter Line Method of L.wing Out Ribbon Carving. 



base of measurement. If it is desired to use the design, 
Fig. 352, for ribbon carving, all the lines of the design 
are regarded as center lines, and on each side of every 
line will be drawn two other lines corresponding to lines 
1, 2, 3 and 4 in Fig. 350. When all these lines have been 
drawn, and the corner connections made, the result will 
be as shown in Fig. 353. In laying out the lines of bands 
in a design of this character it is often convenient to 
divide the entire space of the design into small squares. 
In Fig. 353 the center lines of the large square are 
divided to indicate how the space might 1)e divided into 
little squares equal in dimensions to the width of the 
band. In this case the design is nineteen units square. 
It will be noticed that the outer groove around the design 
is made a full unit in width, whereas the other grooves 
are somewhat narrower — in this case three-fifths of a 
unit. The reason for making the outer groove wider is 



INLAYING AND WOOD-CARVING. 



229 



to unify and strengthen the appearance of the design. 
This widening of the outer band may be noticed in all 
the designs in Fig. 351. 

The second method of procedure in laying out designs 
for ribbon carving is to start with the entire space across 
the band and the two bevels, or across the four lines in 




ODO 



a be 

Fig. 354, Spack Division Method of Laying Out Ribbon Carving. 

Fig. 350. This method is usually better when adapting a 
design to given proportions and shape of outline. For 
example, in a. Fig. 354, a broad band, which is to include 
the final band and two grooves, is drawn parallel to the 
upper edge of the object to be decorated and at the 
desired distance from it. Then this broad band is broken 
up as indicated in b and c. Fig. 354. The distance of 
the design from the top and sides of the object, and the 
width of the band and the grooves should be studied to 
give the most pleasing effect when the object is com- 
pleted. 

202. Grounding Out and Molding. — Another type of 
wood-carving is suggested by the Flemish carved oak 
tracery of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, examples 
of which are shown in Figs. 355 and 356. This consists 
of grounding out, or cutting down, to make a back- 
ground, and then molding the edges. 

The background spaces or "ground" are sunk as fol- 
lows : (1) With a narrow gouge of quick sweep, say ^", 
No. 9, cut around the spaces keeping a little inside the 
lines. (2) With the same tool held on its side, remove 



230 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



the surplus uiatcrial ])y a series of parallel cuts directly 
across the grain. Repeat this operation, if necessary, 
until the depth of the ground is but little less than that 




1^ -3 


m^ 




^^^Kiv 


i'JKii^^Mt 


f^^M^^^'l^'^m.l 1 


^ "■'if 


Pii 


: ^1^ 


If": : ^ 


41t!» 


} 


*e|; ;fj 


Kfirjigfiij 






:ih\r.M 


i#-;:#-^;^ 




''Hf 




1 







Fig. 355. Fig. 356. 

Examples of Flemish Carving in the Boston Museum of 

Fine Arts. 

re(juire(l in the finished carving. (3) The sides of the 
grounds should next 1)e cut down square, the tool being 
held as in Fig. 347. The depth of these "firming" cuts 
should be slightly -greater than the required depth of the 
background, straight lines are firmed with gouges that 
fit them best. In case no gouge is at hand to fit a par- 
ticular cur\c, it may l)e firmed either with a skew chisel, 
held as in Fig. 357, and swung about the left hand as a 
fulcrum, or with a gouge ground to a convex edge and 
rocked over (along) the required curve. (4) The 



INLAYING AND WOOD-CARVING. 



231 



background is next sunk to the required depth and 
smoothed with gouges of slow sweep, say Nos. 3 and 4, 
sometimes called "tiat gouges." The smoothing cuts 




a 


y/////zvA 


n 


b 


4y%^///////y/A 


c 


w/zm:^ 


/^v///v/////////yA 


d 
e 


W/M>^ 


y///^'y/////////////y 


'////////J^///////////. 



Fig. 357. 

Firmed with a Skkw 

Chisel. 



Fig. 358. 

Cross- Sections of 

Mouldings Used 

in Carving 

Tracery. 



must meet the firming cuts so that the chips may 1)e 
freely removed without any prying action with the tool. 
Do not use chisels for the smoothing. 

After the process just described, the edges of the 




a b c d 

Fig. 359. Book Supports Carved with Tracery Designs. 

grounds are as shown in a, Fig. 358. The next step is 
to cut the corners ofif as indicated in b, Fig. 358, thus 
producing the curved molding. This is done with a 



232 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



gouge of medium size and the curvature needed to make 
the required molding. The result will appear as in c 




11 - ^ I 

I, I JB 

it I 

It I 

I 111! Jllllill 



Fig. 360. Simple Modeling. 



Fig. 361. 
A Treatment of Background, 



and d, F^ig. 359. A very simple means of adding more 
complexity and interest to the design is the form of 
molding shown in c, F^ig. 358 and applied in a and 1), 
Fig. 359. The molding shown in d. Fig. 358, is the one 












> , «% s . L 








^ 








N 






















a be 

Fig. 362. Three Steps in Laying Out a Tracery Design. 

employed in Fig. 355 ; the one shown in e, Fig. 358, is 
found in a slightly modified form at the bottom of Fig. 



INLAYING AND WOOD-CARVING. 



233 



356 and in Fig. 360. In the center of this latter design 
some very simple modeling is introduced. Suggestions 
for similar modeling may be found in 



Fig. 355. 



A treatment of background 



which sometimes proves very effective 
is shown in Fig. 361. Fig. 362 indicates 
the three steps in laying out a design 
of this type. All the lines in a, except 
the light horizontal line, indicate the 
upper corner of the niolding as n in b, 
Fig. 358. In b, Fig. 362, lines cor- 
responding to o, Fig. 358, have been 
added. C, Fig. 362, shows the ad- 
dition of the intersection lines of the 
moldings In Fig. 362 all the lines are 
straight, but the steps in the process are the same when 
the lines are curved as in Fig. 363. The decorative cusps, 




Fig. 363. A Simple 

Treatment of 

Cusp.s. 




Fig. 364. Free Use of Cusps in Tracery Design. 



m, in Fig. 363, need not cause any departure from the 
simple following of the fundamental lines cutting the 
molding. This fact is made evident by Fig. 364. 



234 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



203. Modeling. — In relief carving, Figs. 365, 366, 367, 
the foreground masses stand out from the background 




Fig. 365. 
Folding Book-Rack with Interlaced and Modeled Design. 



s])aces, and are usually modeled, according to the char- 
acter of the design. 

When the design permits, an interesting texture may 

be given the foreground masses, 
and a pleasing ]3lay of light and 
shade thrown across the carv- 
ing by modeling, Fig. 368. 

The texture of carving is due 
to the minute tool marks left 
on the surfaces. These marks 
should help express the rhythm 
of the design and explain the 
form. The use of scrapers or 
sandpaper destroys these marks 
and is therefore to be avoided. 
The degree of smoothness re- 
quired depends upon the scale of the carving and the 
position it is to occupy. Large work to 1)e viewed from 




Fig. 366. 
Simple Modeled Rosette. 



INLAYING AND WOOD-CARVING. 



235 



a distance requires a bolder, rougher treatment than 
small work to be seen close at hand. A general rule 
for small work is to make all surfaces as smooth as 
possible bv the cutting action of the tools. Perfection 
of form rather than smoothness of surface distinguishes 
good carving. 

204. Light and Shade. — The sparkle of carving is due 
to the une\'en reflection of 
light ])y the varying surfaces. 
Those surfaces that reflect 
the light directly give the 
high lights ; those that reflect 
it c^bliquely give the half- 
tones ; the sharp edges give 
dark shadows on the back- 
ground. Hiese lights and 
shades should be balanced 
over the carving to corres- 
pond roughly with the dis- 
tribution of interest in the 
spotting of the design. 
Variety of surface gives 
variety of light and shade. 
The background in Fig. 368 
is a good example of surface treatment. Winding or 
twisting surfaces are particularly effective. 

The modeling cuts should be made with as few 
changes of tools on each surface as possible, using tools 
whose curvatures correspond with those of the surfaces 
required. The large number of facets produced by the 
use of too many different tools on a surface tend to make 
the carving look labored, and lose the sharpness and 
crispness so essential to interesting texture. 

Many rounded forms may be cut by holding the gouge 




Fig. 367. Rosette 
WITH Floral Panel. 



236 



IVOODJVORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



with the convex side tip. Very delicate modeling may be 
done with the tool held as in Fig. 369. By twisting the 
U-shaped tools, while taking a cut, a very great change 
in curvature may be effected on a surface without the 
necessity of changing tools. 








Fig. 368. Examtles of Surface Treatment from a School in 
Leipsic, Germany. 



The modeling must be decided. Let the rounded sur- 
faces be distinctly rounded, and the high points distinctly 
high, etc. Avoid uncertainty either of form or contour. 
W^ithout a certain clear-cut sharpness, carving loses its 
distinctive character as a tool-wrought ornament. 

It is often wise to try a design on a piece of scrap 
material to determine the scheme of modeling best 
adapted to it before attempting its final execution. 
Modeling the form in clay is still l)etter, l)ecause it is so 
easilv clian";ed. 



INLAYING AND WOOD-CARVING. 



237 



205. Finishing Carvings. — Carvings may be finished 
with oil, wax, or filler, followed by a thoro brushing to 
remove the surplus finishing material. The dull finish 
produced by these methods is much preferable to a high 
gloss. A finish of the latter sort tends to emphasize the 
tool marks and renders the carving harsh and hard. 
Varnish and polish should not, as a general thing, be used 
on carving. 

206. Pierced Ornamentation. — Pierced ornamentation, 
such as that showm in Fig. 370, may be used to "lighten 
up" the appearance of an 

otherwise heavy-looking de- 
sign. Such ornamentation, 
like inlay and carving, must 
not be allowed to interfere 
with the strength or utility 
of the project, and the spaces 
and lines must be as care- 
fully thought out with refer- 
ence to the project as a 
whole. Like inlay and carv- 
ing, ornamentation such as 
this must not be used to 
excess. 

High-school boys may well 
have access to a jig-saw for work such as this-. (1) A 
hole will be bored in the waste, the saw^ blade inserted 
and the kerf kept quite close to the line. (2) A chisel 
or gouge should be used for completing the work, as far 
as possible. A fine wood file may be used, care being 
taken to keep the edges square and straight. File marks 
should be removed with a scraper. 

Where a jig-saw is not available a compass saw will 
serve as a substitute. 




Fig. 369. Method of Holding 

Tool for Very Delicate 

Modeling. 



238 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



Straight line designs may be laid off directly upon the 
wood. Curved line designs should be traced from a full 
size drawing by means of carbon paper and a stylus. In 
either case it is wise to prepare full size drawings first, 
that the proper proportioning of parts may be secured 
without damage to the wood thru changed markings. 




Fig. 370. 
Pierced Ornamentation. 



CHAPTER VIL 
Wood Finishing. 

207. Wood Finishes. — Finishes are appHed to wood 
surfaces (1) that the wood may be preserved, (2) that 
the appearance may be enhanced. 

Finishing- materials may be classed under one or the 
other of the following: Filler, stain, wax, varnish, oil, 
])aint. These materials may be used singly upon a piece 
of wood or they may be conibined in various ways to pro- 
duce results desired. 

208. Brushes. — Good brushes are made of bristles of 




Fig. 371. Brushes Bound in Metal 

AND Wrapped with Wire. .„ ,,.,.„ 

the wild boar of Russia and China. These ' '^^ 

, • ,, , . - J r ^ Fig. 372. Dusting 

bristles are set in cement and are nrmly ^ 

. Brush. 

bound by being wrapped with wire in 

round brushes or enclosed in metal in flat brushes, Fig. 

371. 

A large brush, called a duster, is used for removing 
dust or loose dirt from the wood, Fig. 372. Small 

239 
16 



240 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




Fig. 373. Small 
Chisel Edge Brush. 



brushes, used for traciiii^, usually have chisel edges. 
Fig. 373. 

Bristle brushes are expensive and should be well cared 
for. Brushes that have l)een used in 
shellac and are not soon to be used 
again should be cleaned by rinsing 
them thoroly in a cup of alcohol. 
This alcohol may be used later for 
thinning shellac. 
X^arnish and paint brushes should be cleaned in tur- 
pentine. If they are to be laid away for some time, a 
strong soap-suds, or lather, made from some of the soap 
powders, should be well worked into the brush, after the 
preliminary cleansing. It should then be carefully pressed 
into proper shape and laid away fiat on a shelf. When 
the brush is to be used again, it 
should first be washed out, to get rid 
of all the soap. 

Brushes that are used from day to 
day should be kept suspended, when 
not in use, as in Fig. 374, so that 
their bristles shall be kept moist, 
without their touching the bottom of 
the bucket or can. 

Since alcohol evaporates rapidly, 
shellac cans with cone tops should 
be used. 

Fig. 375 shows a can which is made double. Varnish 
is kept in the inner portion and water in the outer ring. 
The cover fits over the inner can and into the water space, 
thus sealing the varnish airtight but removing all danger 
of the cover's sticking tc^ the sides of the can. The brush 
is suspended from the "cleaning wire" so that its bristles 
rest in the liquid. 




Fig. 374. ]\[ethod of 
Suspending Brushes. 



WOOD FINISHING. 



241 



If delicate woods are to be varnished, stone or glass 
jars would better be used to hold the liquid, as metal dis- 
colors it slightly. 

209. General Directions for Using Brush. — (1) Hold 




Cover, 



VAfiN6H Can 

Fig. 375. Double Can — 
Prevents Evaporation. 




Fig. 376. Correct 

Method of Holding 

Brush. 



the brush as in Fig. 376. (2) Dip the end of the brush 
in the liquid to about one-third the length of the bristles. 
(3) Wipe off the surplus liquid on the edge of the can, 
wiping both sides of the l:)rush no more than is necessary 
to keep the liquid from dripping. A wire stretched across 
the can as in Fig. 377 provides a better wiping place for 
the dripping brush. In wiping the brush on the edge of 
the can, some of the liquid is likely to 
"run" down the outside. (4) Using 
the end of the brush, appl}- the liquid 
near one end of the surface to be 
covered. (5) "Brush" in the direction 
of the grain. (6) Work towards and Fig. 377. Wire 
out over the end of the board, leveling Device for Wiping 
the liquid to a smooth film of uniform Brush. 

thinness. The strokes should be "feathered," that is, 
the brush should be lowered gradually at the beginning 
of the sweep and raised gradually at the close, otherwise, 
ugly "laps" will result. The reason for working out over 




242 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




"7 ^ 

Fig. 378. Final 
OR Feathering Strokes. 



the ends rather than from them will appear with a little 
thought. (7) Now work toward the second end. The 
arrows, Fig. 378, show the general directions of the final 
or feathering strokes of the brush. 

Edges are usually covered 
first and adjoining surfaces 
afterward. 

It frequently happens that 
surplus liquid runs over a 
finished surface, especially 
when working near the arrises. This surplus can be 
"picked up" by wiping the brush upon the wire of the 
bucket until the bristles are quite free of liquid, and 
giving the part afifected a feathering sweep. 

If the object has an internal corner, work from that out 
over the neighboring surfaces. 

Panels and sunk places should be covered first. After- 
ward, the raised places, such as stiles, 
rails, etc., may be attended to. 
Wherever possible the work should 
be laid flat so that the liquid may be 
flowed on horizontally. This is of 
special advantage in varnishing. 
Vertical work should always be be- 
gun at the top and carried down- 
ward. 

Tracing consists in working a 
liquid up to a given line but not over 
it, such as painting the sash of a window. Tracing re- 
quires a steady hand and some practice. A small brush 
is generally used and the stroke is made as nearly con- 
tinuous as the flow of the liquid will allow. Fig. 379. 

210. Fillers. — Fillers are of two kinds, paste and liquid. 
They are used to fill up the wood pores and thus give 




Fig. 379. Tracing 
TO A Given Line. 



WOOD FINISHING. 243 

a smooth, level, non-absorbent surface, upon which other 
coverings may be placed. Paste fillers are for use upon 
coarse-grained woods such as oak and chestnut, while 
liquid fillers are for close-grained woods such as Georgia 
pine. 

Fillers are not a necessity, especially the liquid kind, 
but the saving effected by their use is considerable. Not 
only are they cheaper than varnish but one or two coats 
of filler will take its place and permit a saving of two or 
three coats of the more expensive material. 

Liquid filler should be applied evenly with a brush and 
allowed to dry twenty-four hours, after which it may be 
sanded smooth with No. 00 paper. It is used mainly up- 
on large work such as porch ceilings and interior finish, 
like Georgia pine. On fine cabinet work, one or two coats 
of thin white shellac is used as a filler upon close-grained 
wood. Shellac forms a surface which, after twenty-four 
hours, can be sandpapered so as to make a very smooth 
surface. Varnish applied to the bare wood has a tendency 
to darken and discolor it. Filling with shellac preserves 
the natural color. 

Paste filler is sold by the pound in cans of various 
sizes. The best fillers are made of ground rock crystal 
mixed with raw- linseed oil, Japan and turpentine. 

For preserving the natural color of the wood, filler is 
left white ; for Flemish, it is colored brown ; for antique 
and weathered finishes, it is dark. Fillers can be pur- 
chased ready colored. 

211. Filling with Paste Filler.— (1) Thin the filler 
with turpentine until it makes a thin paste. (2) With a 
stfff-bristled brush, force the filler into the pores of the 
wood and leave the surface covered with a thin coating. 
(3) Allow this to stand until the filler has ''flatted," 
that is, until the "gloss" has disappeared and the filler 



244 IVOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

becomes dull and chalkish. The time required for this 
to take place varies. Twenty minutes is not unusual. (4) 
Rub the filler off just as soon as it has flatted — do not let 
it stand longer, for the longer it stands the harder it is to 
remove. Rub across the grain as much as is possible, 
using a vv^ad of excelsior. Finish fine w^ork by going 
over it a second time with a cloth, rubbing with the grain 
as well as across, that the "high lights" mav be clear of 
filler. 

On fine work use a felt pad to rub the tiller into the 
pores, and rub off with a cloth only. 

Twenty-four hours should be allowed the filler to hard- 
en. One filling is suf^cient for ordinary work ; on fine 
work the above process is sometimes repeated after the 
first filling has hardened. 

The striking contrasts in the grain of wood such as 
oak and chestnut, obtained by the use of colored fillers, 
are due to the dark filler's remaining in the open grain 
but being wiped oft" of the close grain — the ''high lights." 

On quarter-sawed oak, each flake is sometimes sanded 
with fine paper, No. 00, to remove the stain that the con- 
trast may be sharper. 

Excelsior and rags used in cleaning off filler must not 
be allowed to lie around, but must be burned, as thev are 
subject to spontaneous combustion and are dangerous. 

212. Stains. — Stains are used to darken the high lights 
of wood preparatory to the application of a relatively 
darker filler. By varying the intensity of the stain 
different results may be obtained with the same color of 
filler. Stains are also used without fillers. 

There are three kinds of stains: (1) water, (2) oil, 
(3) spirit. Each kind has its advantages and its disad- 
Aantages. 



WOOD FINISHING. 245 

Water stains are cheap, penetrate the wood deeply, and 
are transparent. They cause the grain of the wood to 
"rough up," however, and for this reason are used mainly 
upon hard woods which require darkening before the 
application of a filler. The wood is sanded before the 
filler is applied. Where water stain is not to be followed 
by filler, it is customary to thoroly moisten the surface 
to be covered with water alone. After this has dried, 
the surface is sanded with fine paper and the stain ap- 
plied. The stain does not raise the grain as it otherwise 
would. 

A\^ater stains may be applied w^ith a brush or a sponge. 
They are sometimes heated that they may enter the wood 
more deeplv. Any coloring matter that can be dissolved 
in water will make a wood dye or stain. 

Oil stains, like water stains, are often used to stain 
wood before filling. They are more generally used where 
no filling is desired. They are easier to apply evenly than 
water or spirit stains. They do not raise the grain of 
the wood like the other stains. On the other hand, they 
do not penetrate and therefore cannot color hard woods 
dark. Neither do they give the clear effects. 

IMost oil stains are applied with a brush, after which 
the surface of the wood is immediately wiped clean with 
a cloth. 

Spirit stains are but little used where surfaces of any 
size are to be covered. They are expensive, fade easily, 
and are hard to apply evenly. 

They are applied with a brush and dry very quickly. 

A stain which penetrates deeply and is clear is obtained 
by placing the wood in a closed receptacle in which is 
placed a dish of concentrated ammonia. The fumes of 
this liquid cause a chemical change to take place, giving 
to the wood a rich nut-brown color. 



246 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

213. Waxing. — An old finish that has recently become 
popular is that of waxing. It takes the place of the var- 
nish, by which it was supplanted years ago. 

AVax finish is easily applied and is cheaper than var- 
nish. It will not stand wetting. However, it is easily re- 
paired. 

Our ancestors used to make wax polish by "cutting" 
beeswax with turpentine. 

Rapid drying and hardening waxes can be purchased 
now-a-days. They require a smooth surface and a very 
thin application for a successful result. Too much wax 
upon a rough surface will produce very ugly, white, chalk- 
like spottings as the wax dries. These are especially 
noticeable upon dark finishes. Waxes colored black over- 
come this but are not needed if the ordinary wax is prop- 
erly applied. 

In finishing with wax the following directions may be 
followed: (1) Stain the wood if a very dark finish is de- 
sired. (2) If the wood is coarse-grained, put on two 
coats of paste filler and rub it off carefully, that a smooth 
surface may be prepared. Allow the stain twelve hours 
in which to dry, also each coat of the filler. (3) With a 
soft cloth apply as thin a coating of wax as can be and 
yet cover the wood. Wax is in paste form. (4) Allow 
this to stand five or ten minutes, then rub briskly with a 
soft dry cloth to polish. (5) After this coat has stood 
for one hour another may be applied in the same manner. 

A thin coat of shellac brushed evenly upon the hard- 
ened filler "brings out" the grain and makes an excellcn; 
base for wax as well as varnish. It should stand twenty- 
four hours and then be sanded smooth with No. 00 sand- 
paper before the wax is applied. 



WOOD FINISHING. 247 

There are other patent preparations which give the 
same soft effects as wax and are as easily applied — in 
fact, some of them are but wax in licjuid form. 

214. Varnishes. — Varnishes are used where a hard' 
transparent coating is desired. There are two kinds, (1) 
shellac or spirit varnish, (2) copal or oil varnish. 

Varnishes vary greatly in quality and therefore in price. 
If made of specially selected pale gum for use on light or 
white woods the price will be higher than for that of or- 
dinary color tho the quality may be no higher. 

Rubbing varnishes are so made that they may take a 
"rubbed finish." 

Varnishing should be done in a room in which the 
temperature can be kept from 70° to 80° Fahr., and 
which is comparatively free from dust. The surface to 
be covered must be clean, dry and filled even and smooth. 

215. Shellac. — Shellac or spirit varnish is a solution of 
lac and alcohol. Lac is soluble in both grain and wood 
alcohol but grain alcohol is preferable. Beds of crude lac 
are found in parts of Africa and South America where 
the lac has been left by the decay of leaves and twigs 
which it at one time encrusted. Crude lac is deposited up- 
on leaves and twigs of certain of the lac-bearing trees by 
countless numbers of insects which draw out the sap. 

Stick-lac is crude lac which has been purified somewhat 
of the bodies and eggs of the insects and rolled into stick 
forms. When crushed and washed it is known as seed- 
lac. When fully purified, which is done by melting and 
straining, it is spread out and is known as shellac. 

White shellac is obtained by bleaching. Orange shellac 
is unbleached. Pure white shellac is used where the more 
yellow shellac would discolor. Orange shellac is stronger 
than white and will last longer, but is harder to apply be- 
cause it sets more rapidly. 



248 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

Shellac varnish sets quickly, dries hard but softens un- 
der moisture. Unlike oil varnish, it does not ''level up" 
and must, therefore, be brushed on quickly, using long, 
even strokes. No spots must be omitted for they cannot 
be "touched up." 

216. Shellac Finishes. — The use of one or more coats 
of shellac preparatory to a varnish finish has been noted. 

A very simple finish, and one that is easily applied, is 
obtained by covering stained wood with a very thin coat 
of shellac. 

To obtain the finish known as egg-shell gloss, (1) Coat 
the smooth wood with from three to six applications of 
thin shellac. Allow each coat twenty-four hours in which 
to harden. (2) Rub to a smooth surface each hardened 
coat, using curled hair or fine steel wool or fine oiled 
sand-paper. 

217. Oil or Copal Varnishes. — Oil varnish is com- 
posed of copal gum, l)oiled oil and turpentine. Copal 
gums are obtained from Africa mainly, in certain parts 
of which they are found as fossil resins, the remains of 
forests which once covered the ground. 

Pressed flaxseed furnishes crude linseed oil, while the 
long leaf pine of the South furnishes the turpentine pitch. 

The oil is prepared for use by boiling it in huge kettles 
with different materials which cause it to change chemi- 
cally. It is then put away to settle and age, that is to clear 
and purify itself. It takes from one to six months for the 
oil to reach a proper degree of clearness and purity. Tur- 
pentine is obtained form its pitch by distillation. 

The copal gums are melted and boiled thoroly with 
the oil. Turpentine is added after the mixture of gum 
and oil has cooled sufficiently. The whole is then strained 
several times, placed in tanks to age or ripen. From 
one month to a year, or even more, is required. 



WOOD FINISHING. 249 

The quality of varnish depends upon the qualities of 
the gums, the proportion of oil and turpentine and the 
care which is exercised in the boiling process. 

218. Flowing Copal Varnish. — (1) Lay on the var- 
nish quickly in a good heavy coat. Use a good varnish 
brush and dip the bristles deeply into the liquid, wiping 
them ofT just enough to prevent dripping. (2) Wipe the 
bristles quite free of varnish ; go over the surface and 
pick up as much of the surplus liquid as the brush will 
hold. Replace the varnish in the can by wiping the 
bristles on the w^ire of the can. Repeat until the entire 
surface has been left with but a thin smooth coating. 

Two, three, four or more coats are applied in this 
manner, forty-eight hours being allowed between each 
for drying. Dry varnish comes off in sanding as a white 
powder; if not dry it will come off on the sandpaper as 
little black spots. 

219. Typical Finishes for Coarse-Grained Woods. — 
Egg-Shell Gloss: (1) One coat of water-stain, English 
golden, etc., according to the result desired. (2) Allow 
time to dry, then sandpaper lightly with fine sandpaper. 
This is to smooth the grain and to bring up the high 
lights by removing stain from some of the wood. Use 
No. 00 sandpaper and hold it on the finger tips. (3) Ap- 
ply a second coat of the stain diluted about one-half with 
water. This will throw the grain into still higher relief 
and thus produce a still greater contrast. Apply this 
coat of stain very sparingly, using a rag. Should this 
stain raise the grain, again rub lightly with fine worn 
sandpaper, just enough to smooth. (4) When this has 
dried, put on a light coat of thin shellac. Shellac pre- 
cedes filling that it may prevent the high lights — the solid 
parts of wood — from being discolored by the stain in the 
filler, thus causing a muddy effect. The shellac being 



250 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

thin does not interfere with the filler's entering the 
pores of the open grain. (5) Sand lightly with fine 
sandpaper. (6) Fill with paste filler colored to match 
the stain. (7) Cover this with a coat of orange shellac. 
This coat of shellac might be omitted but another coat of 
varnish must be added. (8) Sandpaper lightly. (9) 
Apply two or three coats of varnish. (10) Rub the first 
coats with haircloth or curled hair and the last with 
pulverized pumice stone and crude oil or raw linseed oil. 

Dull Finish : A dead surface is obtained by rubbing the 
varnish, after it has become bone dry, Avith powdered 
pumice stone and water, using a piece of rubbing felt. 
Rub until the surface is smooth and even, being careful 
not to cut thru by rubing too long at any one spot. The 
edges are most likely to be endangered. Use a wet 
sponge and chamois skin to clean off the pumice. 

Polished Finish: The last coat should be rubbed first 
with pulverized pumice stone and water, and then with 
rotten stone and water. For a piano finish rub further 
with a mixture of oil and a little purverized rotten stone, 
using a soft felt or flannel. A rotary motion is generally 
used and the mixture is often rubbed with the bare hand. 

Gloss Finish: For a gloss finish, the last coat is not 
rubbed at all. 

220. Patching. — It frequently happens in rubbing with 
pumice that the varnish is cut thru so that the bare wood 
shows. To patch such a spot proceed as follows: (1) 
Sandpaper the bare place lightly with very fine paper. No. 
00, to smooth the grain of the wood raised by the pumice 
water. (2) If the wood has been stained or filled, color 
the spot to match the rest of the finish. Apply a little 
with a cloth and wipe off clean. (3) When this has 
dried, carefully apply a thin coat of varnish to the bare 



WOOD FINISHING. 251 

wood. Draw it out beyond the bare wood a little, "feath- 
ering" it so that there shall not be a ridge. (4) Allow 
this to dry hard and apply a second coat, feathering it 
beyond the surface covered by the first coat. (5) Re- 
peat until the required thickness has been obtained. (6) 
Rub with pumice and water. Rub lightly, using a little 
l)umice and much water. The slightly raised rings made 
by the lapping of one coat upon another will need special 
attention. It is best not to sandpaper between coats, 
because of the danger of scratching the rubbed finish 
adjoining the patch. 

221. Painting. — The purpose of paints is to preserve 
the wood by covering it with an opaque material. Paints 
are usually composed of white lead or zinc oxide and 
coloring materials mixed or thinned with raw or boiled 
linseed oil. Turpentine is also used for thinning and as a 
drying agent. 

Paint must be w^ell brushed out so that a thin film may 
result. 

In painting, (1) cover the knots with shellac, or the oil 
of the paint will be absorbed thru two or three coats 
and a discoloration result. (2) Put on a prime coat. 
This coat should be mixed as thin as it can be and still 
not "run'' when applied to vertical surfaces. (3) Fill 
the nail holes with putty. Sand lightly if a smooth finish 
is desired. (4) Apply two or three coats of paint thin 
enough to flow freely but thick enough to cover well and 
not "run." 

The second coat is given a little more than the usual 
amount of turpentine that a "flat effect" may prepare the 
way for the final gloss coat. If the last coat is to be dull, 
turpentine is used in it as well as the second. Oil causes 
gloss, turpentine causes a dull of flat efifect. 



252 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

222. Wood Finishing Recipes. — Wax: Cut up bees- 
wax and add to it about one-third of its vokime of tur- 
pentine. Heat to the boiHng point in a double boiler. Or, 
melt a quantity of beeswax and to this add an equal quan- 
tity of turpentine. Care must be taken that the turpentine 
shall not catch fire. 

Water Stains : Any coloring matter that is soluble in 
water will make a stain. 

Mahogan}' : Three quarts of boiling water, one ounce 
of Bismarck-brown aniline. 

Brown : Extract of logwood, the size of a walnut, dis- 
solved by boiling in four ounces of water. Apply hot and 
repeat until the desired color is obtained. 

Black : First stain the wood brown with the logwood 
solution. Coat this with a stain prepared as follows : 
Soak a teaspoonful of cast iron filings in four ounces of 
acetic acid or vinegar. Allow it to stand for a week, 
stirring it occasionally. 

Walnut : Make a strong solution of powdered bichro- 
mate of potash and hot water. Over this stain, apply a 
coat of the logwood stain. 

Oil Stains: Coach colors ground in Japan when thin- 
ned with turpentine make good stain. Alix in the pro- 
portion of one-half gallon of turpentine to one pound of 
color and add a little boiled oil. Colors commonly used 
are drop-black, Vandyke brown, medium chrome yellow, 
burnt and raw umber and burnt and raw sienna. 

Green : Drop-black, two parts ; medium chrome yellow, 
one part ; a little red to kill the brightness. 

Walnut : Asphaltum with a little Venetian red. 

Golden oak : Asphaltum and turpentine thinned like 
water, to be followed with filler darkened with burnt um- 
ber and black. 



WOOD FINISHING. 253 

Antique oak: Raw sienna properly thinned, with a 
little burnt umber and .black added. 

Spirit Stains: 

Black : Alcohol and aniline black. 

Mahogany : Alcohol and Bismark brown. 

Aniline stains cut with alcohol, and mixed with white 
shellac and banana oil or amyl alcohol in equal parts, 
make good stains for small pieces of work. 

Colored Fillers : 

Antique oak : Natural filler darkened by the addition 
of burnt Turkey umber. 

Golden oak : Natural filler darkened by Vandyke 
brown and l^lack asphaltum varnish. 

Flemish oak: Natural filler darkened by Vandyke 
brown, burnt Turkey umber, and drop black. 

Forest green : Natural filler colored with lampl)lack 
and chrome yellow. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
Furniture Construction. 

223. General Discussion. — In getting out stock, 
whether by hand or machine, the worker should learn 
to so arrange his operations that both time and material 
may be used with economy. To save time, see that a 
complete stock bill is made out before beginning to get 
out any material. Arrange this bill so that pieces of like 
lengths, widths or thicknesses may be determined readily. 
Posts for table legs, etc., where the ends must be worked 
carefully, should be cut at least ^'^ longer than is required 
in the completed piece. Widths usually require ^" extra 
and thicknesses Y\ In cutting rails to length, which are 
to have tenons on the ends to fit into blind mortises, time 
and material will be saved if the rails are cut neat length, 
that is, the length between the shoulders plus the lengths 
of the tenons. 

In the selection of the faces, it should be remembered 
that face marks are not used to indicate the best surfaces 
necessarily, but rather the two surfaces first worked and 
from which other surfaces are to be w^orked. Also, that 
face surfaces or sides being more likely to be accurate 
than the other surfaces worked and tested from them, 
are to be turned in so that members may join face to face 
or end to face as far as possible. This will necessitate 
care in selecting the stock and the faces. Arrange so that 
sap streaks, small knots and other imperfections shall be 
concealed when the parts are assembled, as far as is 
practicable. 

254 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



255 



In squaring small posts by hand the student should 
learn to test for straightness by sighting along the length 
with one eye. For wind he may test by sighting over 
two squares, Fig. 380. Sight over the top edges to see 
if the arrises line up. If the piece is long, move one of 
the squares along the member from place to place until a 
sufficient number of places have determined the general 
surface. As a rule, square all members to width and 
thickness before beginning to lay out joints. In laying 
out joints observe the instructions given in Chapter IV. 




Fig. 380. Testing for Wind. 

224. Designing. — Designing is nothing more than 
combining familiar elements in new ways. The quickest 
way for a shop student to develop judgment in such mat- 
ters is to plentifully provide himself with plates of work- 
ing drawings of furniture of various types. Such plates 
should provide the elements in the form of information 
about fastenings of parts, proportions of members, etc. 
It remains for the student to make the new combinations. 
The teacher of furniture design should be ready to point 
out lack of proper interpretation of any given form or 
proportion on the part of the pupil. 
17 



256 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




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FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



257 




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258 



IVOODIVORK FOR SECOXDARV SCHOOLS. 




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FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



259 




Fig. 384. Possibilities of Keyed Tenon. 



260 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



To illustrate, suppose the student wishes to design a 
taboret. In looking over plates of furniture design he 
finds the taboret drawing, Fig. 381, the general style of 
which is in harmony with other fittings in his home. 
Looking still farther he finds the drawing of a chair, Fig. 
382, which offers suggestions for modifying the panel 
construction of the taboret just mentioned. In the piano 
bench. Fig. 383, he sees that the thru tenon on the lower 
rails of the taboret is not a necessity. He also notes the 
approximate sizes of the joints and gets ideas of possible 
proportions of parts. In Fig. 384 the possibilities of the 
keyed tenon are brought to his attention when applied 
to the stretcher. The final result may 
be like Fig. 385. 

It is true that the result here is quite 
consciously thought out. The process, 
however, is just as true to type, so far 
as the creative process is concerned, as 
is the case when an expert designs a 
piece of furniture. The only difference 
lies in the fact that the expert is so 
familiar with the elements out of which 
he builds his design that he has left 
only the "meaning" or "feeling." He seems to design or 
create new forms without ever having considered any 
work other than his own. Let the student strive to ac- 
quire this same state of mind or feeling, remembering 
that it is the result of patient study and application 
rather than of supernatural power granted only to the 
few, and that possible new combinations are almost 
limitless in number. 

225. Structural Details. — In determining the size and 
character of tenons and mortises, mechanics do not make 
use of definite formulas. On the other hand, it would be 




Fig. 385. 
Ultimate Design 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 261 

a mistake to conclude that no thought is given to the 
matter. Theoretically, a tenon and mortise should be so 
designed that they may be so strong mutually, that neither 
one could be made stronger without a consequent weaken- 
ing of the other. In actual practice mechanics do not 
strive for this theoretical nicety, but rather elect to use 
certain standard sizes, determined in no small part by the 
tool equipment. 

For illustration, a tenon or mortise worked on stock 
^'' in thickness would, in all probability, be made f" in 
width or thickness. A rail 2"' in width, shouldered on 
four sides, would probably have a tenon IJ" in width. 
Nor is it absolutely essential that tenons shall be exactly 
centered if, by offsetting slightly, gage settings may the 
more readily be made. It is very essential, of course, that 
gagings shall be made on both members from the faces, 
and the faces planned so that joined members shall have 
their faces on the same side. 

In determining whether a tenon shall be shouldered 
on four, three, two or only one side, there is often room 
for choice. On the other hand, certain situations demand 
but one treatment. Fig. 381 shows a top rail with tenons 
shouldered on four sides. In Fig. 382, the top rail has 
tenons shouldered on three sides. An examination of the 
assembly will show that the latter is given an extraordi- 
nary relish or ''cut away" on the upper edge of the rail 
that the mortise may not come so near the upper end of 
the post with a consequent weakening of the wood about 
the mortise. In Fig. 381, the fact that the post extends 
above the top obviates this modification and the tenon is 
shouldered in the usual manner. These tenons might just 
as well have been shouldered on the sides only, on ac- 
count of the narrow width of the rail. 

A careful study of numerous plates in which such 



262 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



structural details are shown will enable the student to 
design structural details for his own project with in- 



a Q Q e 



telligence. 



226. Posts or 
Legs. — In Fig. 386 
are illustrated 
several treatments in 
the shaping or de- 
signing of posts or 
legs. The chamfered 
top needs no descrip- 
tion. It is laid out 
with a pencil and 
worked like any 
other chamfer. The 
rounded top is simi- 
larly laid out but is best worked with a wood file. The 
file is to be held in both hands, one grasping the handle, 



t5 




Fig. 386. Details of Post Construction. 




Fig. 387. Using Wood Rasp. 



and the fingers of the other grasping the tip of the file 
lightly. The direction of the cutting stroke is indicated 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



263 




by the arrow, the file being lifted from the wood on the 
return stroke, Fig. 387. 

Fig. 388 shows the end of a post laid out for tapering, 
also, partly worked and laid out 
for the next operation. The two 
opposite sides are planed up like 
the gabled roof of a house, being 
first roughed off with a chisel. 
The final operation consists in re- Fig. 388. Post Laid Out 
moving these gables, thus making ^^^ Iaper. 

a hipped effect. Sometimes this tapered end is modified 
by having the arrises at the base slightly rounded, the 
wood file being used as described above. 

Fig. 389 illustrates the manner 
of laying out a tapered foot. Two 
opposite sides are worked, and 
then the taper for the remaining 
sides laid off on these. 

Turned legs may have their 
square parts prepared either l^e- 
fore or after turning. It is a good plan, as a rule, to de- 
sign the turned parts slightly smaller than the square so 
that planing and sandpapering may not endanger the 
turned parts. 




Fig. 389. Laving Out 
Tapered Foot. 




-|0 "^ lofS io|« 



Fig. 390. Modified Louis X\' Style of Li:g. 



In Fig. 390 are shown the proportions of a curved and 
modeled style of leg — a simphfication of the style of 
Louis XV. The leg shown is for a piano bench. In work 



264 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



such as this a templet or pattern should be made. This 
may be made of paper or thin wood. The stock for the 
leg consists of either one piece sufficiently large to allow 
the widest part to be placed, or it may be built up as in 
Fig. 391. (1) Face side and face edge — inner surfaces — 
are prepared, after which the form is traced from the 




Fig. 391. Built-Up Leg. 



templet and then sawed squarely across on the band- 
saw or with a turning saw. It is a good plan not to 
separate entirely the waste on the first sawing, but to 
saw almost thru the length and then withdraw the piece, 
reserving the clinging waste to be used in holding the 
piece level in sawing the second side. (2) Next, the 

outer arris is taken off 
with chisels and spoke- 
shave. Fig. 392, and the 
outer surfaces rounded 
as shown in Fig, 461. 
The mortis e-and- 
tenon joint is often 
used for connecting 
post and rail ; more fre- 
(juently one finds a 
doweled joint used on this type of furniture, several 
strong dowels being inserted. 

The waste stock removed in bandsawing should be 
kept and used in assembling the members, Fig. 393. A 




Fig. 392. Modkltng. 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



265 




piece of cardboard placed between the waste stock and 
the members will ])revent marring the legs. 

227. Corner Fastenings. — It frequently becomes 
necessary to reinforce a corner joint, especially in chair 
seats. Fig. 394 is an 

illustration of one of =^ J-U^..^w«wJ$-l l^^^^^^lj 
tl'ese corner blocks. ' ' ^ ^ ur=^ 

This same figure also 
illustrates the man- 
ner in which the 
longest length of 
tenon is obtained in 
a corner joint. The 
rails are set close to^'^'- ^'^^- Clamping luREciULAR Pcsrs or 

the outer edge of the 

post and the ends of the tenons mitered. 

In Fig. 395 is shown an unusually strong type of con- 
struction for the front corners of a tal)le w tli a drawer. 
Its advantages lie in the dovetailed top drawer rail, and 
the bottom drawer rail which is fastened to tie side nils 
with screws, both of which tend to prevent tl e spread of 
the front legs. This top rail is frequently omitted on 

commercial work. Sometimes a 
rail will be mortised into a post 
and an adjacent rail doweled into 
this same post. 

228. Slats; Splats or Splads; 
Balusters. — Slats are the horizon- 
tal members of a chair 1)ack or 
seat. A splat or splad is the wide 
vertical member of a back. Balusters are the smaller 
vertical members. 

Splats and balusters are joined to the main members by 
doweling, by tenoning with shoulders on two or four 




Fig. 394. REiNKORciiD 
Corner. 



266 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




5lO[ RAIL 

Upp[ii Rail 
U5T Board 
Drawer RuNNEfi 
DRAWER Rail 



sides, or by housing the whole ends where the slats are 
thin enough to do so. This last practice is somewhat 

safer for beginners, for any 
variation in the distance be- 
tween the rails is not notice- 
able as would be the case 
were the ends doweled or 
tenoned, Fig. 396. 

Chair seats are best up- 
holstered, but sometimes a 
heavy leather cushion is de- 
sired instead, placed upon 
slats. A simple method of 
supporting these slat ends is 
to groove the two opposite 
side rails on their inner sur- 
faces and let the slat ends in 
when assembling the frame. 
Fig. 397, a. After the glue 
has hardened and the clamps 
reni()\ed the grooves may be blocked l^etween the slats 
with blocks of appropriate equal lengths, w^idths, and 



-RABBET 

Fig. 395. Reinfurckd Coknkr 
FOR Tables. 




Fig. 396. Joining Splats and Balusters to Rails. 



thicknesses. This is common practice where there are 
many balusters to be set. 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



267 



Another method is to fasten cleats to the side rails 
with screws and then -to fasten the slats to these. Fig. 
397, b. A rabbeted rail. Fig. 397, c, is used on high-grade 
work. 




Ftg. 397. 



Placing Seat Slats. 



When a seat made of woven fiber or leather requires 
a frame other than the seat rails, the frame is constructed 
as shown in Fig. 398. 'It may rest either upon the corner 




Ftg. 398. Chair Seat Frame. 

braces, appropriately placed, or upon rabbeted rails. 
Sometimes dowels are inserted in the rails and the seat 
allowed to rest upon their extending ends. 

229. Chairs. — Chairs, except the square seat type of 
Fig". 399, are rather difficult of construction for beginners. 
A casual examination of any commercial chair will in- 
dicate the reasons. First, the custom of making the back 
narrower than the front, Fig. 400, necessitates cutting 
tenons with beveled shoulders. Second, backs are usually 
given slant above and below the seat rails, making for 
further shouldering complications. Where chairs are 
made in quantities and by machinery, once these angles 



-268 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



have been determined and the machines set, the rest is 
simple. 




Fig. 399. Chairs of Square Seat Type. 

The 1)eg"inner will do well to lay out a full-sized plan 
of the seat, or at least half of it, and take his angles from 

this with the T-bevel. He may 
make the seat rails and posts, 
and then assemble these care- 
fully without glue, and deter- 
mine the other dimensions and 
angles by the "rule of thumb" 
or try method. After he has 
had constructional geometry he 
will be able to determine these 
angles and lengths from his 
drawing. 

Seats are usually given a 
slight inclination backward and 
downward. This inclination 
ma\- l)e secured after the frame is asseml^led l)y laying a 
straight-edge as in Fig. 401, marking and sawing, f to 




i'u;. 4o(). Commercial Type 
OF Chair. 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



269 



J" is usual for this difference in the length of front and 
back kgs. 

In the making of rockers, a sweep arc is used to la}' 
out the curve. The rear posts should be so placed on 
the rockers that they will rest over that part of the 
rocker resting on the floor. Rockers are attached to the 
posts by means of tenons or dowels. The easiest method 
is to assemble the frame, form the rockers, and then lav 




Fig. 401. Marking Chair Legs for Length. 

them in place alongside the posts, scribing upon the posts 
the shape the posts must take to fit the rocker. After 
the rockers are fitted the chair may be inverted and the 
dowels inserted in holes bored thru the rocker bottoms 
into the ends of the posts, plenty of glue being placed in 
the holes first. Fig. 402. 

Furniture makers have no standards of curvature for 
rockers ; neither do they have an}^ standards for flare of 
seat or inclination of backs. 

Rear posts, square in section, are, as a rule, sawed out 
of solid stock. Back slats which are curved may be 



270 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



sawed from the block or they may be bent. If bent, the 
result is attained by boiling the part in water for thirty 




Fig. 402. Boring for Doweling. 

minutes, or hy applying- live steam to the piece when 
enclosed in a tight receptacle, so made that the steam 
may l)e entered at one end and allowed to escape at 
the other after affecting the w^ood ; after which the 

pieces are attached 
to forms or cauls pre- 
viously prepared. Fig. 
403. The parts are then 
set away in some warm 
place to dry. A piece 
of sheet metal placed 
upon the outside sur- 
face in clamping will serve to keep the fibers intact and 
insure a more uniform evaporation of w^ater. 

Tn laying out tenons upon bent slats a straight-edge 
is placed as in Fig. 404, to locate the cheeks. 




Fk;. 403. Bknding Chair-Back Slat. 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



271 



Fig. 404. Laying off Tenons on 
CuRVKD Stock. 



Also, chair rockers are formed by steaming and bend- 
ing the stock. 

230. Patching. — Not infrequently, in the selection of 

woods, small defects ^ p 

.,, ; , OTRLAIGHT LDGt 5LAT 

will have to be ac- 
cepted. In such cases 
it is possible to better 
conditions l^y the care- 
ful removal of the de- 
fect and the insertion of a patch. Care should be taken 
to select a piece of wood for the patch which has the same 
color, grain markings, etc., as those of the piece to be 
repaired. (1) Cut a plug of a size just sufficient to cover 
the defect. Give its sides a very slight slant so that it 
will wedge upon being driven in. A diamond-shaped 
piece will be less likely to show on the finished piece. (2) 
Place this plug over the affected part, being careful to 

have the grain match, 
even to the spring and 
summer growth lines or 
markings. Scribe about 
the plug carefully with 
a sharp knife. Fig. 405. 
(3) Remove the plug 
and carefully chisel the 
waste to a depth just 
sufficient to give the 
plug a firm hold. (4) 
Place glue in the mor- 
tised part and, placing a block on the plug so that the 
plug may not be battered, drive it in place. (5) Allow 
the glue to harden, then dress off the surplus stock until 
it is flush with the surface of the part patched. 




Fig. 405. Scribing About a Plug. 



18 



272 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

231. Curved Work. — Several methods of producing 
curved work are common to cabinet-work. Where the 
work is sufficiently large to warrant, segments are laid 
out by means of templets and sawed to shape on the 
band-saw. These are then glued together as in Fig. 406. 
This core is usually constructed of some soft wood such 
as white pine. (2) After the glue has had time to set 
well, the core is worked to a true shape upon the band 



Fig. 406. Building a Segmental Core. 

saw or by turning, Fig. 407. If sawed upon a band-saw, 
the circular plane, Fig. 65, will be made use of to smooth 
any irregularities caused in the sawing, also to remove 
the saw marks, for, if thin veneer were to be laid over a 
surface with saw marks left upon it, the marks would 
show thru the veneer. In either case the toothing plane. 
Fig. 77, is used to give the final touches in preparing the 
surface for the laying of the veneer. 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



273 



In Fig. 408 is shown a method of producing curved 
work by means of cauls. Cauls are usually made of soft 
pine, the form which they shall take being determined by 






Fig. 407. Working Sf.gmext.vl Core to Shape. 



the form desired in the curved piece. The stock is 
steamed in the usual manner, and pressure applied to the 
cauls by means of clamps. Fig. 409 illustrates a rather 
more difficult application of the same 
process. It shows the form and fol- 
low board, or cauls, used in shaping 
the body or drum of a guitar. The 
sides of the guitar will be made in 
two parts. These are drawn to place 
on the sides first, after being- 
steamed. After this, the loose ends 
are drawn to place by means of the forms having the 
screws thru them. Where great pressure is required, 
bolts take the place of screws. The stock for such work 




Fig. 408. Cauls. 



274 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



as this is thin, not over y\ Ten minutes steaming with 
live steam, with four days allowance for drying, is re- 
quired. The loose ends are fastened to the glue blocks 
as shown after being fitted. 

Laminated stock is made use of in curved work as well 
as plane. This stock is made up of layers of thin veneer 
glued just before being placed in the cauls or clamps. (1) 
Prepare the cauls, form and follow board. (2) Prepare 
a piece of thin stock for the core ; glue-size it after tooth- 
ing it. (3) See that the clamps are ready; then heat the 
cauls to as great heat as the wood will stand without 
scorching. (4) While these cauls are heating apply 





1 l iTi T';i 



Fig. 409. Form and Follow Boards in Caul Work. 



the glue to the core and allow it to set slightly to prevent 
the veneer's slipping. \^eneer pins, small brads, may be 
used in addition, if necessary. Place the pins so that the 
holes, left upon withdrawing the pins, after the glue has 
set, will not show. (5) Apply the cauls and clamps. The 
drying process may be hastened in many cases by re- 
heating the cauls at intervals of several hours. Paper 
should be placed over the veneer to prevent its sticking 
to the cauls because of glue forced thru the pores of the 
wood. A piece of heavy cloth, as baize, placed over the 
paper will serve to press all parts of the veneer to the 
core. Cauls should be so made that the pressure shall 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 275 

come upon the center of the veneer first, that the glue 
may be expelled and not form "pockets." 

In laminated stock the grain of the veneer will extend 
at right angles to that of the core. For sharp curves the 
grain of core and veneer will be laid parallel, and thin 
veneer and core used. 

232. Veneering. — Veneers are prepared in two ways — 
by sawing, and by cutting them with a knife. The first 
kind is known as saw-cut. Such veneers vary from ^V" 
to iV" in thickness. The second kind, known as knife- 
cut, are thinner, varying from 1/100" to 1/50" in thick- 
ness. 

Knife-cut veneer is obtained by revolving a well- 
steamed log about two centers, as in a lathe. Underneath 
the log is a knife the full length of the log so adjusted 
that it takes a continuous slice from the surface of the 
log as it revolves. This kind of veneer is also known as 
rotary-cut veneer. By this method, veneers of any width 
may be obtained, and the rotary-cut gives to the grain a 
most striking appearance. 

In selecting veneer cores, a very hard wood should 
not be laid upon a very soft core, the soft wood absorbing 
too much of the glue. 

In preparing the core (1) the surface should be made 
smooth, any depressions being plugged with wood or, in 
the case of slight crevices, filled with sawdust and glue. 

(2) The toothing plane should be used to score the sur- 
face both up and down the grain and in all directions. 

(3) A thin coating of glue should be applied and allowed 
to dry, after wdiich it should be toothed again if any ir- 
regularities appear. (4) Tooth the veneers should there 
be saw-marks or other unevenness on their reverse sur- 
faces. 



276 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



Rotary-cut veneers, being very thin, are best cut to 
size by means of a sharp knife and a straight-edge. 

Sawed veneers are usually laid bv means of cauls. 




Fig. 410. Applying Veneer to Segmental Core. 



Fig. 410 shows a table rail being veneered upon built-up 
segments, a metal caul of zinc being used on the convex 
surface. Wood cauls are better than metal in many ways. 
There is danger of getting the metal caul too hot, and 
more clamps are needed to produce a 
contact between core and veneer. Metal 
cauls too hot to be handled with the 
bare hands are too hot for the veneer. 
The advantage of the metal caul is 
obvious. 

Rotary-cut \eneers are frequently 
laid wnth a veneer "hammer." This 
tool, Fig. 411, is a piece of scra])er steel rounded slightly 
so that it will not scratch the surface of the veneer, set 
into a wood head so shaped that the left hand may be 




Fig. 411. 
Veneer Hammer 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 277 

used to apply pressure while the right haud grasps the 
handle and directs the movement.- It is in reality not a 
hammer at all, and the process is not one of hammering 
but rather of squegeeing as in mounting photographic 
prints. 

(1) Cover the core with hot glue, fairly thin and free 
from grit and lumps. (2) Apply quickly, and then lay 
the veneer, brushing with the hand from the center out 
toward the edges. (3) Dampen the surface of the veneer 
with hot water and a sponge and lightly work the surface 
with a well warmed flat-iron, working from the center 
outward. The purpose of the hot iron, like the heating 
of the cauls, is to soften the glue so that later it may be 
worked out to the edge. Work rapidly. (4) Next, using 
the hammer as shown in Fig. 410, work the surface of the 
veneer until all air spaces have been driven to the edges. 
Where air spaces cannot be removed by the method 
just described, and where blisters have formed upon a 
dried veneer surface, it will be necessary to prick the 
veneer with a sharp, thin knife along the grain to allow 
the air to escape. After this, the hot iron in connection 
with the veneer hammer is used to lay the raised place. 

Where wide pieces are to be veneered the veneer 
should be cut somewhat larger than the core to be covered 
to allow for shrinkage in drying. 

In veneering end grain the veneer should be placed 
with the grain extending from broad surface to broad 
surface to allow for shrinkage in the core, and two or 
three sizing coats of glue must be applied to the end grain 
of the core to seal the pores. 

The ''pull" of the veneer when drying may be partly 
equalized by laying the veneer on the heart side of the 
core. Dampening the back of the core slightly when 
sizing the reverse surface preparatory to gluing the 



278 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




Fig. 412. Veneer Press. 



veneer is another device to prevent warpage. The heat- 
ing of 1)Oth caul forms is another aid. Care in keeping 
the work away from une\'en draughts, either hot or cold, 

and in keeping the parts 
clamped until well dried 
is necessary. 

Fig. 412 is an illustra- 
tion of a veneer press, or 
rather a combination of 
several small presses. 

233. Clamping Table 
Tops. — Wdiere a table top 
is to be hand-surfaced 
after being put together, 
the whole may be clamped 
at one operation. If the 
top is to be surfaced on a 
machine, it may be necessary to glue it in two parts and 
surface these before assembling them, depending upon the 
wddth of the top and the size of the planer bed. 

If hot glue is to be used, two persons should work- 
together that the clamps may be adjusted before the glue 
has had time to set. As in all other clamping, everything 
should be pre- 
pared to facilitate 
the clamping, once 
the glue has been 
applied. Clamps 
should l)e laid in ^^ 
place, the jaws F":- 412a. Cl.\mi'I.\(; Table T();>. 

set approximately, and Idocks laid in convenient places, 
if needed. The screw jaw should be drawn back as far 
as possible. Plan to have the division of labor such that 




FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



279 



one person shall be a help and not a hindrance to the 
other. The clamps are to be placed as in Fig. 412-a. The 
placing of some of the clamps on the opposite side is done 
to equalize the unequal pressure of the other clamps, due 
to the fact that the jaws of such clamps seldom apply the 
pressure centering. Since table tops are glued up before 
edges or ends are worked, it is not absolutely necessary 
to use blocks between the clamp jaws and the edges of 
the table. The slight marring of the jaws will be re- 
moved in the final squaring of the top. 

234. Surfacing Table Tops. — In selecting stock for a 
top, at least ^'' should be allowed for surfacing. The 
surface is first roughed ofif by cross planing. Fig. 413, and 
the wind removed, after which it 
is smoothed by planing along the 
grain. If care has been taken in 
selecting and placing the grain, 
as directed in the making of a glue 
joint in a previous chapter, little 
difficulty should be experienced in 
surfacing. 

In surfacing on a machine, 
where the machine is too narrow 
to receive the full top, the top 
may be glued in two or more 
parts, and a face surface prepared 
on each by running over the hand jointer. They may 
also be run thru the planer and worked nearly to thick- 
ness. After this they may be glued, and the remaining 
work thereby greatly diminished if care is taken to keep 
the face surfaces even in clamping. 

235. Clamping Framed Structures. — No small amount 
of ingenuity may be displayed in clamping up various 
types of furniture. In general, the most intricate opposite 




Fig. 413. Cross Planing. 



280 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

sides or ends are glued up one at a time and the glue 
allowed to harden on these before the remaining sides 
are placed. By properly looking ahead the student may 
so plan his work that no time need be lost waiting for 
glue to set. It is best, as a rule, to get every part ready 
and fitted before gluing any of them. Where, however, 
the clamps are in great demand and must be kept in 
constant use, the student may generally clamp up certain 
parts without endangering the fitting of the remaining 
parts. In Fig. 383, for illustration, the two ends of the 
piano bench may be got ready and glued up. The rails 
and top may be worked while the glue is hardening upon 
these ends. Or, the pieces forming the top may be glued 
together first and the glue allowed to set while these end 
members are being prepared. 

The steps taken in assembling simple framed structures 
are comparatively easy to perform, yet in no other part 
of cabinet work does the beginner seem to experience 
more discouragements. This is due mainly to the fact 
that he does not appreciate the necessity for making cer- 
tain simple, but very important tests, and frequently 
does not know how to make necessary adjustments of 
his clamps to remedy the defects which the tests indicate, 
or has failed to have everything in readiness and right 
before applying the glue. Glue, especially hot glue, upon 
intricate assembly requires the most systematic and 
rapid, but careful, manipulation. (1) If in doubt, see 
that every member fits properly, even to the extent of 
first assembling without glue. (2) Have the various 
mortises and tenons marked plainly so that no time need 
be lost in locating them wdien gluing. (3) Have the 
frame laid out in the order in which the parts are to be 
fitted and. as soon as a part is glued, ])lace it where it 
belongs in the lay-out. (4) Learn to work with a 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 281 

partner. Let him assist in the gluing and in the assem- 
bling. (5) Have an abundant supply of short, smooth 
blocks ready to insert between the clamp jaws and the 
frame. (6) Have the clamps laid just where they will 
be needed when the frame is laid in them after gluing. 
(7) Let the partner attend to one clamp jaw and its 
block and the worker attend to the other jaw of the same 
clamp and its block. (8) Adjust the clamps so that the 
whole frame may be brought together without racking, 
that is, do not attempt to draw a clamp up tight all at 
once where other members are hindering, but apply the 
other clamps and work each in turn. 

236. Adjusting the Clamps ; Clamping a Section. — Too 
many beginners fail to appreciate that the operation 
described in the section just preceding marks but the 
beginning of the clamping or assembly process, and many 
a good piece of work is spoiled because of this. 

Very seldom will one find clamps with jaws so placed 
that they will draw the members up square to the rails. 
Even were the manufacturers to build clamps so that 
they would do this, the unnecessary strain to which be- 
ginners subject the clamps would spring the bar so as to 
make the same caution necessary. 

The better types of clamps are constructed as in Fig. 
414, with the screw head r^^-^ 



^oQi I 




made fast to a guide which 
runs in slides on the clamp 

bar. Where this guide is 

_, . .1 • Fig. 414. Use of Block to 

not present the screw law . ^ ^ 

t . Adjust Post in Clamp. 
and its head tend to sprmg 

away from the bar as the screw is extended thru the head. 

In either type, however, attention must be given to the 

way in which the jaws press upon the members being 

clamped. 



282 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




Fig. 415. 



Testing Post for Squareness 
TO Rail. 



In clamping- up a section the first time, place the 
blocks as near center as possible, and do not take time 
to make liner adjustments until all the clamps have been 
attached to this section, Fig. 414. After the clamps have 
been applied, without loss of time, test each rail by plac- 
ing the try-square, as in Fig. 415, to see that it squares 
with the post. Seldom will it be found to do so even 
tho the shoulders are cut accurately. Let the partner 

test at one end and 
the worker at the 
other. When both 
have tested, release 
the clamp so that the 
blocks may be moved 
and let each adjust 
his block either to- 
ward or aAvay from the clamp bar as the case demands. 
Another way to adjust this pressure is to leave the 
block alone but to slip a sliver — a variety of thicknesses 
should be at hand — between the block and the jaw of the 
clamp, either near or removed from the bar of the clamp 
as required in order to exert the pressure at the desired 
spot. 

Test again after the clamp has been tightened and re- 
peat the process until each post is square to its rail. 

Next, test the frame, as in Fig. 416, to see if the frame 
is square. Place the square 
against a post and a rail. If 
the frame squares with one 
post try the other. Some- 
times slight irregularities in 
rail or post cause difBculty 
in securing a fair test from each side. Look for the 
cause and if too late to remedy, and the difference is 




Fig. 416. Testing Frame for 
Squareness. 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



283 



slight, divide the difference between the two sides. 
Usually any lack of squareness may be remedied by tap- 
ping on the end of one of the posts. Place a block thereon 
so as not to mar the wood. If this proves insufficient 
a clamp must be applied as in Fig. 417. A very little 
pressure will be sufficient in most cases. 

Third, sight the section 
to see whether it is in 
wind or not, Fig. 418. 
Usually the wind that will 
be found may be removed 
by twisting the frame with 
the hands. Set the section 
away so that it will not 
be sprung in wind again 
thru its own weight improperly supported. 

In clamping thru tenons, place the pressure im- 
mediately beside each side of the projecting tenon. This 




Fig. 417. Diagonal Clamping. 




Fig. 418. Sighting a Section for Wind. 

is best accomplished by cutting grooves in the clamping 
blocks of sufficient depth to allow the tenon end to enter 
when fully clamped. Adjustments are best made here by 



284 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



clamping slivers between the block and clamp jaw instead 
of trying to shift the block. 

237. Assembling the Sections.-r-In clamping up sec- 
tions, Fig. 419, care must ])e taken in applying the pres- 
sure to. see that the glue 
joints of the first section 
are not broken thru the 
application of the pres- 
sure too greatly "off cen- 
ter." Do not draw the 
clamps much until the 
try-square test is made to 
see that the rails are at 
right angles to the post. 
Fig. 415. Shift the blocks 
or insert slivers between blocks and clamp jaws until the 
proper result is obtained as indicated by the try-square 
test. 




Fig. 419. 
Clamping St-ctions Together. 




Fig. 420. Sighting Frame for Wind. 

Also test as in Fig. 416. Then test by sighting over 
the frame, as in Fig. 420, to see that the frame is out of 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



285 



DD 



..^ 



^-OCl 



Ftg. 421. Shifttnc Clamp to 
S(JUARE Frame. 



wind. Wind and lack of squareness in a frame may be 
removed frequently by merely shifting the clamp to a 
slight angle, Fig. 421. 

The final test, and a very important one, is the measur- 
ing of the diagonals to see 
that the frame is square, one 
section with another. On 
small pieces, a square may be 
used to make this test. On 
large pieces it is best to take 
two sticks and, using them 
as an extension rule — an ex- 
tension rule may be used if 
long enough — measure the diagonals, Fig. 421-a. Adjust 
until the diagonals are equal, either by attaching a clam]) 
along the longer diagonal or by cutting a stick the lengtli 
of the proper diagonal and forcing it l:)etween the posts 
along the shorter diagonal, Fig. 421-b. 

238. Scribing the Posts. — After the clamps have l)een 

removed the chair, stool, or 
whatever it may be, should 
be placed upon a surface 
table and the legs scril^ed to 
fit the same. The top of a 
universal saw talkie will 
serve as a surface table for 
chairs and small o1)jects. 

T^ , „ ,. „ For larger objects a laro-e 

Fig. 421 a. 1 esting Frame for & j ^> 

Squareness by Measuring table will be required. (1) 
Diagonals. Level the top of the frame — 

it is taken for granted the surface table is level — by plac- 
ing slivers under any posts which may be low or short. 
(2) When the top is leveled, set the dividers an amount 




286 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




which it is desired to remove from the legs and scribe 
all the posts as in Fig. 422. (3) Saw or plane the posts 
as indicated by the scribed lines. 

239. Clamping Miters.— In Fig. 
423 is shown a device for clamping 
mitered members. It is known as a 
column clamp. Blocks of wood 

Fig. 421 -b. Adjust- 
ing Diagonals. 

should be placed l)e- 
tween the chain and the 
stock to prevent injury 
to the stock. The 
members are first glued 
and assembled, being 
held in place by means 
of pinch dogs or cor- 
rugated fasteners light- 
ly driven. The joints 
may be reinforced after 

the clamping has been done l)y driving the fasteners en- 
tirely in, the ends being first squared. 

For clamping mitered picture frames the most con- 

\enient and efficient clam]) will be found described in 

Section 1-29. This is a 

combination of clamp, 

miter-box and nailing 

frame. 

240. Fastening Tops. — 
The essential thing to re- 
meml)er in fastening tops 
is that, whatever the type 




Fig. 422. Scribing Lkgs to Length. 




LiUJ 

Clamping Mitkrs. 



Fig. 423. 
of fastening, allow^ance must be made for slirinkage and 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



287 



l^'^w^'>^'.mkkW\\\s\vs\\\\vvHa;;myf|ig^ 




Fig. 424. Fastenings for Table Tops. 



swelling. On small tops where shrinkage and swelling 
are not great, small angle irons may be used to ad- 
vantage. These are fastened to the rails and to the top 
by means of screws. The table, or whatever piece of 
furniture it may be, 
is turned upside 
down and the irons 
placed at regular in- 
tervals. Fig. 424. 

Fig. 424 also 
shows two methods 
of attaching tops 
directly by means of 
screws. In the first type a hole is bored into the rail 
upon the inner surface. A small hole is bored down thru 
the edge to meet this hole and at an angle which will 
permit the screw to be inserted thru the hole in the side 
of the rail. In the second type the gouge is used to make 
an opening for the screw head. 

For wide tops the best fastening is the wood button, 

Fig. 425. This style of fasten- 
ing permits quite a range of 
movement of the top in shrink- 
ing and swelling without dan- 
ger of cracking or checking. In 
machine work the groove in 
the rail is plowed, as a rule, the 
full length of the rail. 

241. Drawer Runners and 
Guides. — Drawer runners and 
guides are variously con- 
structed. In the better types 
of construction the drawer bearers are framed as in Fig. 
426. The dust board serves not only to keep the dust 

19 




Fig. 425. Buttons Used to 
Fasten Table Tops. 



288 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



out but also to prevent access to a drawer by the removal 
of the drawer just above it. The guide in this case 
should be glued to the runner or bearer. 

In cheaper work 

""'Ten ON ED OR, 



guides are often formed 
as in Fig. 427, being 
doweled to the back and 
to the drawer rail. In 
Fig. 428 is shown a 




DOWELED JOINT 



dUNNEft 

DUST BOARD 



method of carrying a 
middle guide with bear- 



■mm 



M 



o 



o 



J Rabbeted 



-5I5E Hail 
^GUIDE 
^O-R-UNNEHoiiBEAilEli 



Fig. 427. Drawer Runners 

AND Guides Cheap 

Construction. 



DRAWER, Rail- 

Fig. 426. Drawer Runners and 
Guide. 

er. These are doweled to the rails. 

242. Drawer Construction. — The front of a drawer 

is usually made of thicker 
stock than the other parts, 
Fig. 429. For example, if 
the front were to be made of 
y stock the sides, back and 
bottom would probably be 
made of |" material. Drawer 
fronts are always made of 
the same material as the rest 

of the cabinet or desk while the sides, back and bottom 

are usually made of some soft wood such as yellow poplar. 

Fig. 430, A, illus- 
trates a very common 

method of fastening the 

drawer sides to the 

front. This form is 

used mainly upon cheap 

or rough construction. 

It is commonly known 

as a rabbeted joint. The 

half-blind dovetail, Fig. 




HoustDi Dovetail Beawer, Uk^vh 

Fig. 428. Detail of Framing Drawer 
Division. 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



289 




Fig. 429. 



Thicker Stock for Front 
OF Drawer. 



430, B, is a better fastening, by far, and is used almost 
exclusively on fine drawer construction. 

243. Directions for Rabbeted Corner. — The rabbeted 
joint, Fig. 430, A, sometimes called a rebate or ledge joint, 
is made as follows : (1) 
Line across the face 
side of the drawer front 
at a distance from the 
end equal to the thick- 
ness of the drawer 
sides ; also, across the 
edges to the approxi- 
mate depth of rabbet. 
(2) Set the gage and gage on ends and edges as far as 
the lines just placed, for the depth of rabbet. (3) Cut 
the sides of rabbet, paring across the grain as in cutting 
the dado. Fasten by nailing thru the drawer sides into 
the front, not thru the front into the sides. 

244. Directions for Dovetail Corner. — The front of 
the drawer should be laid out and cut first. (1) Gage on 

the end the distance the 
drawer side is to lap 
over the front. (2) 
Without changing the 
setting of the gage, 
hold the head of the 
gage against the end of 
the drawer side and 
gage on both broad sur- 
faces. Ordinarily, one 
should not gage across the grain of the wood nor should 
the head of the gage be held against other than a face. 
A little thought will show why exception has l)een made 
in this case. (3) Square a line across the face side — the 




Fig. 430. A, Common Method. 
Half-Blind Dovetail. 



B. 



290 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



inside surface — of the drawer front at a distance from 
the end equal to the thickness of the drawer side. This 
line gives the depth of mortise for the tails. (4) The 
groove for the drawer bottom having been cut. or its posi- 





FiG. 431. Center Lines for 
Tenons. 



Fig. 432. Sawing to Knife 
Line. 



tion marked on the end of the front, lay out on the end 
the half tenons at both edges so that the groove shall 
come wholly within a tail mortise. The amount of flare at 
which to set the bevel is given in Fig. 268. (5) Deter- 
mine the number of tenons wanted and divide the space 
between the flares just drawn into the required number 
of equal parts, and draw center lines for the tenons, Fig. 





Fig. 433. Chiseling Out 
Mortise. 



Fig. 434. Position for 
Marking Mortises. 



431. (6) With the bevel lay ofif to either side of these 
center lines the sides of the tenons. (7) Carry these 
lines down the face side to meet the line previously drawn 
to indicate mortise depth. (8) Saw exactly to the knife 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



291 



lines, cutting-, Fig". 432, the kerfs out of the mortises, not 
the tenons. (9) Chisel out the mortises. Fig. 433. 

The corresponding mortises and tails may now be laid 
out on the drawer side and worked. (10) By super- 
position, Fig. 434, mark out the shape of the mortises to 
be cut in the sides. (11) Saw and chisel these mortises. 

245. Directions for Drawer. — (1) Square the dififer- 
ent members to size. (2) Groove 
the front and sides of the drawer to 
receive the drawer bottom. These 
grooves should be made somewhat 
narrower than the bottom is thick to 
insure a good fit. The under side of 
the bottom, later, may be gaged and 
beveled on the two ends and the 
front edo:e. Fig:. 435. (3) Lay out 



5 



d 



Fig. 435. 
Bottom Beveled. 



and cut in the drawer sides the dadoes into which the 
ends of the back are to be fitted. Fig. 436. (4) Lay out 

and cut the joints on the 
front of the drawer. (5) Get 
the bottom ready ; that is, 
plane the bevels on the under 
side as suggested in (2). 
(6) Assemble the members 
dry to see that all fit prop- 
erly. (7) Take apart ; glue 
the joints by which the sides 
are fastened to the front and 
the joints by which the back 
is fastened to the sides. Glue the bottom to the front of 
the drawer but not to the sides or back. 

Sometimes on large or rough work nails are used in- 
stead of glue to fasten the members together, In this 




Fig. 436. 
Construction of Back. 



292 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



case the front, sides and back are put together, the back 
being kept just above the grooves in the sides. The bot- 
tom is then slipped in place under the back. It is fastened 
to the front of the drawer only. Especial care should 
be taken in squaring the bottom for the squareness of 
the drawer is dependent upon this. 

246. Paneling. — Often it is desired to fill in a rather 
wide space with wood. To offset the effects of shrinkage, 
winding and warpage, a panel rather than a single solid 
piece is used. By increasing the number of panels a 
space of any size may be filled. Fig. 437. 




Fig. 437. Filling 

Any Space with 

Panels. 



■P" 



FLU5H 



H_ 



Llevated 



Plain 



R.AI5ED 

Fig. 438. Panel 
Surfaces. 



Panel surfaces are formed or shaped in a number of 
ways. In Fig. 438 are shown several styles. The plain 
panel and the raised panel are used for similar purposes, 
the raised panel being considered somewhat more orna- 
mental. The flush panel is used in construction where it 
is desired to have the panel surface even with, or flush 
with, the rails and stiles. The elevated panel is used 
mainly upon the tops of chests. 

In assembling panels, care must be taken that no glue 
shall get into the grooves in such a way as to bind them. 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



293 




Fig. 439. Plowing Grooves. 



The panel must be able to move in the grooves when 
swelling or shrinking. A touch of glue may be placed, 
however, in the groove at the middle of the panel at either 
end to hold the panel centered in its frame when swelling 
or shrinking. Us- 
ing any other 
place in the 
grooves, i n t e n- 
tionally or a c c i- 
dentallv, will de- 
feat the v e r y 
purpose of the 
panel. Sometimes 
the grooves are 
oiled before as- 
sembly ; glue will 
not adhere to an oiled surface. 

In making of doors, frames for panels, etc., enough 
extra stock must be added to the stiles and rails to permit 
their being trimmed when fitting them in place, i" to 
each member is usual. 

247. Cutting Grooves. — Grooves for panels are best 
cut by means of the panel plow or combination plane. It 

is not necessary to gage for the 
sides of the groove ; the adjust- 
ments of the plane are such as to 
give the proper depth and loca- 
tion, when once set, and a cutter 
of the width equal to that of the 
desired groove inserted. The fence 

of the plane must be held against one or the other of the 

faces, Fig. 439. 

248. Haunched Mortise-and-Tenon. — A groove must 
be plowed the full length of a piece to work it to 




Fig. 440. Haunched 
Mortise-and-Tenon. 



294 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




Fig. 441. Rabbeted 
Corner. 



Fig- 



advantage. Where a mortise-and-tenon joint is to be 

made in which the grooved surface is to become a part, 
the tenon must be so cut as to allow its 
filling the groove. The mortise should 
be cut before the groove is plowed. 
The tenon, after being worked the full 
width, is gaged from the face edge to 
a width equal to the length of the 
mortise and worked to that size. 
440. 
Especial care must be 

taken in gluing up the frame 

that no glue shall get into 

the grooves or on the edges 

of the panel. 

249. Rabbeting.— Fig. 441 

shows a corner of a frame 

rabbeted to receive a glass. 

Rabbets are best Avorked 

with either a rabbet plane or 

the combination plane. In 

rabbeting across the grain 

the spur must be set parallel 

with the edges of the cutter. 

Since the parts of the frame are rabbeted the full length 
for convenience, a special joint is neces- 
sary at the corners. The mortises are 
cut before the rabbets are worked. The 
tenons are laid out so that the shoulder 
on one side shall extend as far beyond 
the shoulder on the opposite side as the 
rabbet is deep, Fig. 442. 

Where rabbeting must be worked 

with a chisel alone, Fig. 443 illustrates the manner of 




Fig. 442. 



Joint for Rabbeted 
Frame. 




Fig. 443. Rabbet- 
ing with Chisel. 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



295 




Fig. 444. Placement of 
Glass Panels. 



loosening- up the wood preparatory to removing it, when 
the rabbet extends along the grain of the wood. 

To place glass panels in rabbets, 
first place a slight cushion of 
putty in the rabbet that the glass 
may rest against it. A light 
cushion between the glass and the 
fillet will serve to keep the glass 
from breaking and will keep it 
from rattling, Fig. 444. 

250. Fitting a Door. — A door 
is a frame with a panel or a combi- 
nation of panels. The names of the parts of a door and 
their relative positions are indicated in Fig. 445. 

(1) Mark with a try-square and saw off the lugs, 'the 
parts of the stiles which project beyond the rails. (2) 
Plane an edge of the door until it fits a side of the frame 
against which it is to be hung. If the frame is straight, 
this edge may be planed straight. It is 
not wise to take for granted the square- 
ness or straightness of a frame. A test 
or series of tests may first be made with 
square and straight-edge. A mechanic, 
however, usually planes an edge until 
it fits the frame, testing by holding the 
door against the frame as near to its 
position as its size will allow. (3) 
Plane the bottom or top edge of the 
door until it fits the frame properly 
when the first planed edge is in 
position. (4) Measure the width of the frame at its top 
and bottom, Fig. 446, and transfer these dimensions to 
the top and bottom of the door, connecting them with a 
straight-edge. When approaching the line, in planing, 



Rail 



Panel 



Fig. 445. Door. 



296 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




Fjg. 446. Measuring 
Width of Door Frame, 



place the door against the frame often enough to see 

where the allowances must be made for irregularities in 

the frame. (5) The length of the frame may next be 

measured on each side and these dimensions transferred 

to the door. Connect them 
with a straight-edge and plane 
and fit as was directed in the 
third step. 

A door to work well must 
not be fitted perfectly tight ; it 
must have a little ''play," the 

amount depending upon the size of the door. 

The edge of the door which is to swing free is usually 

planed slightly lower at the back arris than at the front. 

An examination of the movement of an ordinary house 

door will show the reason for this. 

251. Hinging a Door. — The hinges commonly used in 

cabinet-making and carpentry are the kind known as 

butts. Fig. 447. Where the door stands 

in a vertical position, hinges in which 

the tw^o parts are joined by a loose pin 

are generally used. By removing the 

pins the door may be removed without 

taking the screws out of the hinge. 

Such hinges are more easily applied 

than those with the fixed pin. 

(1) Place the door in position ; keep 

it tight against the top and hinge side 

of the frame. (2) Measure from top and bottom of the 

door to locate the position for the top of the higher hinge 

and the bottom of the lower hinge. Usually, the lower 

hinge is placed somewhat farther from the bottom than 

the higher hinge is from the top. (3) With the knife or 



Acorn 



Knuckle 




PlNTLL^ 

Fig. 447. Butt 
Hinge. 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



297 



chisel mark on both door and frame at the points just 
located, Fig. 448. (4) Take out the door, place the hinge 
as in Fig. 449, and mark 
along the ends with a 
knife. (5) In a similar 
manner mark the frame. 
Make certain that the 
openings on door and on 
frame are laid ofif so as to 
correspond before pro- 
ceeding further. (6) Set 
the gage for the depth the 
hinge is to be sunk and 
gage both door and frame, 
Fig. 450. (7) Set another 
gage for width of open- 
ings and gage both door 
and frame, keeping the 
head of the gage against 
the front of the door. Fig. 

451. (8) Chisel out these gains on door and frame, Fig. 

452. (9) If loose-pin butts are used, separate the parts 
and fasten them in place. Use a brad awl to make open- 




FiG. 448. Marking Door and 
Frame for Hinge Location. 




Fig. 449. Marking Hinge Length. 



298 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



iiigs for the screws. To insure the hinges pulling tight 
against the side of the gain make the holes just a little 
nearer the back side of the screw hole of the hinge. Put 
the door in place and insert the pins. Jt is a good 
mechanic who can make a door hang 
properly the first time it is put up. It 
is better, therefore, to insert but one or 
two screws in each part of a hinge un- 
til the door has been tried. (10) If 
the door hangs away from the frame on 
the hinge side, take it off ; take off 
hinge on door or frame, or both if the crack is large ; chisel 
the gain deeper at its front. By chiseling at the front only 
and feathering the cut towards the back, the gain needs to 
be cut but about one-half as deep as if 
the wdiole hinge were sunk. If the door 




Fig. 450. Setting 

Gage for Depth 

OF Gain. 



/ 



=ik 



® n 
® 



should fail to shut because the hinge 
edge strikes the frame too soon, the 
screws of the offending hinge must be 
loosened and a piece of heavy paper or Fig. 451. Setting 
cardboard inserted along the entire ^^^^^ ^^^ Width 
edge of the gain. Fasten the screws 
and cut off the surplus paper with a knife. If plain butt 
hinges are used the operations are similar to those just 
described except that the whole hinge must be fastened 
to the door and the door held in place 
while fastening the hinges to the frame. 
252. Locks. — Locks which are 
fastened upon the surface of a door are 
called rim locks. Those wdiich are set 
into mortises cut in the edge of the 
door are called mortise locks. Locks are placed some- 
what above the middle of the door for convenience as 
well as appearance. Three styles of cabinet locks such 




Fig. 452. Chisel 
ing Out Gain. 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



299 



as are used on drawers and small boxes are shown in 



Fig. 453. 



The manner of applying a cabinet lock will be sug- 
gested by the lock itself. On surface locks, (1) the lock 



Drawer, Lock 




Fig. 453. Three Kinds of Locks. 

is held against the inside of the door or drawer and the 
position of the keyhole is marked. (2) This hole is 
bored. (3) The lock is screwed in place, and (4) the 
escutcheon fastened to the outer or front surface. If a 
face-plate is used, the door is closed, the position marked, 
after which the door is opened and the plate is set. The 
face-plate is mortised into the frame so that its outer 



Lining 
OF Top 




-Top Mould 

FHIEZE MOULO 



Plinth ofl 
Base /Mould 



Fig. 454. Names of Parts of a Typical Piece of Furniture. 

surface shall be slightly lower than that of the wood. 
With a lock such as the box lock. Fig. 453, sufficient wood 
must be removed from the mortise so that the bolt may 
act properly before the plate is screwed fast. 



300 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



253. Carcase Construction — The term ''carcase," as 
used in cabinet-work, refers to any enclosing frame with- 
out doors, draw^ers, or fittings. There may be a lower, 
an upper, a right or a left carcase in a piece of furniture ; 
or the piece may be of such a construction that but one 
part may be so designated. 

In Fig. 454 are named the various parts to a piece of 
furniture. From this it will be seen that the parts to a 
piece of furniture take their names from the correspond- 
ing parts to a house or other building. 




Fig. 455. Common Type of Carcase. 



There are various ways of constructing carcases. Fig. 
455 illustrates a very common type. Frames are made to 
support the drawers. Grooves are plowed on the inner 
edges before the members of the frame are assembled 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



301 



and these serve to hold the dust board, should any be 
used. In cheaper construction these dust boards are often 
omitted. In cheaper work the frames do not have the 
cross rails or bearers full tenoned into the stiles, stub 
tenons the depth of the dust board groove being made to 
serve the same purpose. 

Usually these frames are attached to the posts by 
means of dowels. 

The relative positions of the drawers, the manner of 
framing the partitions between the drawers and of at- 
taching them are indicated in Fig. 455. The vertical 
partitions will be faced with stock having a vertical grain. 
455-B, tho the interior portion will have a horizontal 
grain, 455-A. The connection between the two will be 
made by means of a tongue-and-groove joint. 

254. Shelving. — Shelving is variously fitted to cabi- 
nets. Usually it is made adjustable. Metal stops are to 
be had at any hardware store which are so molded that 
they require only a series of holes in the side of the case 
into which they may be in- 
serted, the shelf ends rest- 
ing upon the projecting 
flats. 

Another method of sup- 
porting shelving is by the 
insertion of ratchets in the 
four corners of the case 
with cleats adjustable to 
various heights. Fig. 456 illustrates several forms of 
ratchets. 

(1) Secure a piece of stock large enough to make the 
four pieces required. (2) Plane a face side and a face 
edge and work to width, for ratchets other than that with 
the rounds. (3) Lay out and work the ratchets. (4) 




Fig. 456. Adjustable Cleats for 
Shelving. 



302 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



<^ 



Gage a thickness and rip off a piece. (5) Again plane up 
a face side and gage and rip ; repeat this operation until 
the four pieces have been ripped. (6) Plane the reverse 
surfaces of each piece to the gage lines. The cleats may 
be worked in a similar manner. 

In making ratchets for the cleats with the curved ends, 
a little different procedure will l)e 
necessary. (1) Square up a piece of 
stock to twice the width and thickness 
wanted in the cleat with enough excess 
stock each way to allow for ripping. 
(2) Lay oft* down the middle of the 
width at regular intervals and bore 
holes of a diameter equal to the pro- 
posed width of the cleat. (3) Rip the 
piece to thickness after gaging. (4) 
Rip the pieces which are thus obtained 
to width, or down thru the holes just 
bored. (5) Plane the saw marks off, 
planing to the gage lines indicative of 
width and thickness. 

255. Rods. — It is essential in com- 
plicated cabinet construction that the 
shop man know with certainty just how 
the cabinet is to be constructed. For 
this purpose rods are constructed. The 
name is slightly misleading, the rods 
being flat boards of thin white wood 
upon which a full-sized sectional draw- 
ing is made. A cabinet may require a 
number of such rods, each showing: 
full-sized detail of some part of the cal)inet. 

To make a rod (1) select a board of sufficient length to 
take a full-sized sectional drawing. The depth of the 




Fig. 457. Rod for 

Cabinet — 
Vertical Section. 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



303 




Fig. 458. Rod for Cabinet — 
Horizontal Sfxtion. 



cabinet, if it exceeds 12'', may be placed on a 12" board 
by using a broken view and placing- the dimensions of 
the depth on the rod, Figs. 457 and 458. (2) Smooth a 
surface and joint an 
edge. (3) With a try- 
square and a sharp pen- 
cil lay off the lines per- 
pendicular to the edge. 
(4) With the gage lay 
off the lines parallel to the edge. (5) Go over all the 
lines with a pencil of medium lead, HB, that the rod may 
be distinct and easily read. 

256. Templets. — Templets or templates are full-sized 
patterns of irregular parts laid out on thin white wood 
and the outline worked to shape. The shapes are first 
drawn on paper and then transferred to the thin wood. 
Templets are made of sheet metal when they are to have 
very extended use. 






Fig. 459. Gothic. Fig. 460. Renaissance Fig. 461. Louis XVI. 

257. Period Furniture. — Furniture styles, like those 

of dress and customs, change, and like dress and customs, 

past styles may be known or determined by the period 
20 



304 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



or age in which they flourished. Some of these styles 
are designated by the name of the reigning monarch of 
the period in which they flourished, the predominant in- 






FiG. 462. Elizabethan Fig. 463. Jacobean. Fig. 464. Queen Anne 

fluence of certain monarchs affecting furniture styles as 
well as those of dress. In other instances the influence 
of the designer being the stronger, the style is known by 




Fig. 465. Chippendale 




Fig. 466. 
Hepplewhite. 




Fig. 467. Sheraton. 



his name. Tt is not possible in a textbook such as this to 
enter into a discussion of styles. Volumes have been 
written upon the subject and the interested student need 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



305 



only make his desires known to a librarian to secure an 
abundant literature on the subject. 






Fig. 468. Adam. Fig. 469. Victorian. 



Fig. 470. Morris. 




Without discussing the propriety of allowing past 
styles to influence present design exclusively in furniture 
construction, it may be said that 
people of culture should be able to 
recognize the chief characteristics of 
the more common historic forms. 
Figs. 459 to 471 illustrate a very 
few types. It must be remembered 
that any one style, such as Hepple- 
white for example, may have a num- 
ber of variations. 

258. Moldings. — In shaping the contour of moldings 
the student will do well to investigate the work of the 
past. Whether or not he wishes to allow historic forms 
to influence his present design in structure, he will have 
to concede that historic moldings express very nearly 
the ultimate in good form and proportions. Fig. 472 il- 
lustrates a few such forms. In moldings, as in furniture 
types, any one style will have a number of variations. 



Fig. 471. Modified 
Mission. 



^06 



WOODWORK FOR SUCONDARY SCHOOLS. 



259. Simple Upholstering. — (1) With a wood rasp 
remove any sharp arrises which might cause the webbing 
to wear unduly. (2) Place the webbing as in Fig. 473. 

Note that the ends 
are folded over about 
V so as to give good 
purchase for the 
tacks. Fasten the 
loose end of the web- 
bing to the far side of 
the frame, using four 
or five 10 oz. tacks. 
Using the webbing 
stretcher as shown, 




Fig. 472. Historic Moldings. 



draw the webbing firmly across the near rail, and fasten 
it with four tacks. Cut off the excess about 1" outside 





Fig. 473. Placing the 
Webbing. 



Fig. 474. Webbing 

Stretcher. Regulator. 

GuiMP Hammer. 



the tacks. Fold this end back over the tacks, and insert 
three more tacks thru the webbing into the rail. 

Webbing may be purchased in rolls of 72 ft. of various 
grades in either 3J'' or 4" widths. *'B. F. M." is of good 
(juality for such work as this. The guimp hammer, Fig. 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



307 



474, will be found especially appropriate for work such as 

this. 

(3) Place burlap over 
the webbing as shown 
in Fig. 475, using 4 oz. 
tacks placed 1^" apart. 

Burlap is used in 



Fig. 475. \^ 

Burlap Over Webbing. 

such work because of 
its power to resist tear- 
ing or ripping, once a 
hole is started. Three 
srrades are in common 
heavy (12 oz.). 





use, 



Fig. 476. Roll of Burlap and Tow 
Along Edge. 
medium (10 oz.), light (8 oz.). 

(4) That there may not be sharp edges, it will be neces- 
sary to place a roll of burlap and tow along the frame as 
shown in Fig. 476. Such edgings not only make for more 
comfort but also serve to prevent the 
coverings from being unduly worn at 
these places. Pick the tow until it is 
fluffy, then roll it into cylindrical form 
between the palms of the hands, and 
place this within the 3" strips of burlap 
previously prepared. Tack this burlap 
so that the heads of the tacks shall 
rest even with the outer arrises of the rails. 

Upon an open frame, such as the one illustrated, it will 
be necessary to place corner blocks that there may be a 
base into which to fasten the tacks which hold the cover- 




FiG. 477. Corner 
Block in Place. 



308 



IVOODIVOKK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




^Cotton 

^ W\U6LIN 

Tow 



Fig. 478. Wadding. 



ing material about the posts. Fig. 477 shows one of these 
blocks in place. 

(5) Next, the stuffing or filling is placed. There are a 
number of different materials used for this purpose, such 

as curled hair, tow, 
moss, excelsior, floss. 
Curled hair is best 
but is expensive. 
Wadding, Fig. 478, is 
a kind of stuffing 
formed into layers 
and is used to cover 
stuffings to give a 
final surface and also 
to prevent the 
coarser materials from working thru the cover. There 
are various grades for each material. 

Moss is sometimes mistaken for curled hair. The ap- 
plication of a lighted match to a small sample will quickly 
indicate its character. Being vegetable, it burns clean, 
leaving an ash. Even the novice knows how hair burns. 

Whatever the mate- 
rial used, it should be 
well picked, shaken or 
pulled out, but not 
apart. Place most of 
the material at the cen- 
ter of the frame and see 
that all is well distri- 
buted. F^^- 47^^- 

(6) The muslin cover is next placed. Fig. 479. Un- 
bleached muslin is commonly used, tho duck or canvas 
may be used where greater strength is desired because 
of a lighter final cover. Upon cheaper grades of work the 




Muslin Cover. 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 309 

outer covering is often placed directly upon the stuffing 
or wadding. 

Begin at the middle of each of the four sides and slip- 
tack each with three or four tacks. Slip-tacking consists 
in driving the tacks but part way in that they may be 
easily removed where readjustment of the cover makes 
this advisable. Next, draw the muslin diagonally and, 
with the scissors, slit the cover from each corner to the 
inner corner of the post. Adjust any of the sides needing 
adjustment by withdrawing and replacing the slip-tacks. 
Tack the muslin permanently, beginning at the middles 
and working toward the ends, folding the edge of the 
muslin under as the work progresses. Use 3 oz. tacks, 
placed H" apart. After the muslin cover has been 
placed, remedy any unevenesses by means of the regula- 
tor, sticking it thru the muslin and wadding and moving 
it about to draw the stuffing where needed. 

(7) The final covering is to be placed next. Such 
coverings may be of leather, imitation leather, or textile. 
In any one of these, there will be found such a variety 
both in color and price that judgment must be exercised 
in the matter of fitness to use. Leathers are expensive. 
Imitation leathers may be secured which look and wear 
well, and are reasonable in price. 

Proceed in the placing of this final covering as in plac- 
ing the muslin cover which preceded it, slip-tacking the 
middles first, etc. Keep the tacks near what is to become 
the edge of the cover that the narrow binding or guimp 
may cover both tack heads and raw edge of cover. 

(8) Place the guimp. Start at one corner using a 4 oz. 
tack. Stretch it across the side to the other leg and fold 
the corner so as to form a square-miter, inserting a tack 
a little oflf center that it may not interfere with the plac- 
ing of an upholsterer's nail later. Continue this around 



310 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




Fig. 480. Ornamental Nails. 



the entire frame. Place the ornamental nails, Fig. 480. 
F^or the sake of looks it is necessary to have these nails 

equally spaced. To do 
this place a nail mid- 
way between the corner 
nails ; break the result- 
ing spaces each into 
two parts in a similar 
manner. Continue in 
this manner until the 
nails are about 1^" 
apart. 
As in the case of other materials, there is a rather wide 
range of choice in the matter of 
nails, ranging from solid leather 
heads to heads which may be 
covered with a material similar 
to that used for the top cover- 
ing. 

In F'ig. 481 is shown a slip- 
seat, the method of upholster- 
ing which is somewhat like that 
just described. 

260. Spring or Box Seat. — 
The spring seat furnishes a 
most comfortable style of seat- 
ing. (1) Form a seat for the 

. r Ki. 4S1. Slip- Seat. 

springs by cross-weaving the 

webbing as in Figs. 482 or 483. Roll the ends of the web- 
bing so that the tacks may secure a firm hold of the cloth. 
Use upholsterer's No. 6 tacks. In Fig. 482 fasten one end 
of a piece of webbing, then roll the other end, after cutting 
to length, so as to make it sufficiently short to cause the 
tacks to draw the webbing taut when driven home. Use 




RAB6LT 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



311 




Fig. 482. Base for 
Spring of Box Seat. 



about 3i" webbing- of g-ood weight, and so arrange the 
weaving- that the springs may be placed upon the lappings. 
(2) Set the springs, bent ends up, on 
these lappings and fasten them to 
the webbing by means of stitching 
twine and an upholsterer's 6" 
double-pointed needle. Fig. 483. (3) 
Next, tie down the springs, using 
spring twine. Start at one corner 
and work with system. The cord is not cut for each 
spring, but a liberal length is cut and this run and knotted 

until exhausted, after which 
another piece is attached and 
the process continued, Fig. 484. 
The springs should be so tied 
down that the center of the 
seat may have a slight crown. 
(4) Over the springs, several 
Fig. 483. Springs Stitched thicknesses of stout burlap are 

to be placed and tacked secure- 
ly to the rails. The stretching of the burlap. Fig. 485, is 
done in the same manner as was the webbing, by rolling 
the final edge a little short and placing the tacks 
so that they will 
draw the material 
smooth as they are 
being driven home. 
Do not draw the bur- 
lap tight enough to 
depress the springs 
lower than their 
position as held 
by the spring twine 
springs. (5) On this burlap a piece of canvas or 





Fig. 484. Springs Tied Down. 
Stitch the burlap to the 



312 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




Fig. 485. 



261, 



Section of Finished 
Seat. 



duck is placed, suitable filling being placed between the 
two to round up the seat nicely. (6) A piece of muslin 

or denim may be tacked to 
the underside of the frame 
to conceal the webbing, ¥ig. 
485. This form of seat is 
often placed in Morris chairs, 
a loose leather cushion being 
placed upon it. 
Woven Reed Seat. — Another type of seating is 
shown in Fig. 487. This is made by cross-weaving a 
fiat reed. This material is allowed to soak in water 
several hours after wdiich it becomes pliable, and can be 
woven around the rails and fastened in a knot on the 
reverse side of the seat. With the drying of the strands 
the seat becomes taut. Experience alone can give the 
information as to the required looseness or tightness of 
the weave. The amount depending upon the dampness 
of the reed. Designs of various kinds may l)e worked 
out as shown in the illustration. 

F^ig. 486 shows a needle used to carry the reed in this 
weaving. The end of the reed is slipped thru the eye of 
the needle. 

The flat reed sometimes used for this 
weaving proves brittle upon drying. 
This is due to the face that it is a pith 
reed. A stronger seat is obtained 
where hickory or ash splints are used, the ends being 
made fast to each other on the reverse side of the stool by 
means of light metal clips. 

262. Rush Fiber Seat. — Another seating made use of 
in manual training shops is that of the rush fiber, Fig. 488. 
The fibers are the leaves obtained in the fall from the 
familiar swamp cat-tail plant. These are allowed to 




Fig. 486. Needle 
FOR Reed Weaving. 



314 WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

season. When wanted for use they are soaked in water 
until quite pliable and then run thru an ordinary clothes- 
wringer to remove the surplus water. By wrapping 
these about a core of the same material a continuous 




. Fig. 488. Fiber Seating. 

rope is obtained which is woven about the rails of the 
chair or stool as rapidly as formed, Fig. 489. No small 
amount of skill is required to keep this rope uniform and 
to arrange the beginnings and endings of a wrapping 
rush so that they shall show on the under side of the 

seat only. 

(1) Begin by fastening 
one end of the rope as at A, 
Fig. 490. (2) carry the rope 
around the nearest rail, as at 
A, carrying it under, then over. (3) Now carry it 
around the adjacent rail, as at B, carrying it under, then 
over. (4) Next, carry the rope entirely across the stool 
to the opposite rail, passing it under, then over, as at C 




Fig. 489. Forming the Strand. 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



315 




(5) Pass it around the adjacent rail, as at D. (6) Now 
carry it entirely across the stool to E. Continue in this 
manner until the center is reached, adding rushes as 
needed. Keep the strands pressed against each other 
closely and always pass the rope under from the inside, 
then over the rail. 

When the seat is oblong the seat is woven in this man- 
ner until the equivalent of the square has been woven, 
after which the rest of the 
weaving will be about only the 
two rails which have not been 
entirely covered. 

That the strands may hold 
their shape and not sag with 
use, the space between the lay- 
ers should be stuffed rather 
firmly with cloth or paper as 
the work of weaving pro- 
gresses. 

A substitute fiber, more generally used upon com- 
mercial pieces, may be purchased in large spools of fine, 
medium, and coarse, in green and light brow^n colors. 
This material is a tough machine-twisted paper which 
looks and wears well. 

In w^eaving, a strand some 10 to 15 ft. should be cut off 
and coiled about two-thirds of its length for convenience 
in handling. A rubber band about the coiled portion will 
be found an added convenience. Moisten slightly. 

The completed seat may be finished with a thin coat 
of shellac and two coats of varnish. Real rush seats may 
be finished with oil, followed by shellac, then varnish. 

263. Cane Seating — Cane seating is common. The 
cane is the bark of the climbing rattan palm which grows 
in the East Indies. The stems of these vines seldom 



Fig. 490. 
Order of Procedure. 



316 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



exceed T' in diameter, yet they grow to the tops of the 
highest trees, then drop again to the ground. The mate- 
rial is shipped to Western countries where its bark is 
removed by machinery and the stem cut into various sizes 



Q W ? 


oo ooOo nf? f) f 






O 
O 
O 


o ii e t 


o j -J 




io 




1 1 






1 






1 




















Fig. 491. Weaves in Caning a Seat. 



of round, oval, and flat reeds. There are about six 
different sizes, the medium being used for ordinary work, 
the fine for l)inder about the edges. 

(1) Lay off and bore holes of W" diameter J" apart 
on coarse weave, |" on medium, and |" on fine, placed 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 



317 



\ O o 


r? ' 


•=== 




t / 


\ « ' 






















r" / 


\ a\ 


1 








'a / 


\ V 








« / 


V 








1 


\ ^ 






/ 


. / 


■ \ 






/ 




\u— 


_ 


_ 


2 




\ o o 


H 




^1 



Fig. 492, Order of Strands 
IN Irregular Frame. 



^'' to ;j" from the inner edge of the seat or frame to be 

covered, Fig. 491. (2) Dampen the strands somewhat 

by drawing them thru a well moistened hot cloth as they 

are being worked in place. The canes come in 16 ft. 

lengths and may be cut in two to facilitate handling. (3) 

Take a strand and fasten at a 

corner of the seat, Fig. 491. A 

wood peg driven firmly into the 

hole will serve to hold the end 

in place. Prepare several of 

these pegs, using one of them 

to hold a strand until a new 

strand is plugged. (4) Weave 

as in Fig. 491. Weaves ABC 

should not be drawn up tight 

but left rather loose. Weave D will tend to tighten them 

and the evaporation of moisture will do the rest. 

Where a cane strand is exhausted, plan to leave enough 
end at the rail so that this may be caught under a follow- 
ing weave as it runs from hole to hole on the under side 
of the rail. The beginning of the first strand is similarly 
fastened, after which the plug may be removed. 

Fig. 492 illustrates the order of the first strands where 
the frame is not square. 

493 will be found 
helpful. It should 
be of a length 
sufficient to reach 
entirely across the 
seat being woven or caned. The hooked point is manipu- 
lated in passing it thru by turning the rod over and back 
as required to work the point under and over the strands. 
After the needle has been woven thru it is threaded with 
cane and both drawn back to the first side. 



A rod such as that shown in Fig. 



CnJ 



Fig. 493. Caning Needle. 



318 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



(5) In panel E, Fig. 491, containing the first diagonal 
strand, it should be noted that the strand is so woven that 
it slips between the two cross weaves. 







Fjg. 494. Completed Weave. 

(6) The weaving of panel F is similar to that of E. 
Fig. 494 shows a photograph of a completed weave. (7) 




Fig. 495. Completed Seat. 



A binder is usually applied to the caned panel, Fig. 495. 
This is done by placing a strip of fine cane lengthwise 
over the holes, around tlie seat and binding it in place 



FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION 319 

by another strand worked up thru each hole over the 
binder and down thru the same hole. 

An awl will be needed to force' the strands together 
where several enter the same hole and others still must 
be inserted. 

In commercial caning splicings are made by means of 
light metal clips. This saves material but it is not so 
satisfactory as where the splicings are made at the rails. 
Most cane seatings of today are machine made, the caning 
being purchased in machine-woven rolls. The upholsterer 
simply cuts from this roll the size desired, moistens it by 
placing it between hot cloths, then places it on the seat 
and drives home in glue-filled grooves the fillets already 
prepared. 

(8) The application of several coats of shellac or var- 
nish will serve to keep moisture from affecting the cane in 
damp weather. 



CHAPTER IX. 
Pattern-Making. 

264. Pattern-making. — Pattern-making is the art and 
science of making forms, or models, called patterns, into 
whose impressions in sand, called moulds, metal is poured 
to give forms known as castings. 

265. Materials. — Patterns may be made from a num- 
ber of materials, such as wood, metal, plaster of Paris 
and molding sand. Of these, pattern-making in wood will 
receive chief attention in this discussion. The pattern 
woods most used are white pine, mahogany, baywood, 
cherry, walnut, chestnut and redwood. Of these white 
pine is considered with most favor because it works 
easily and holds its shape best. 

266. Flasks. — Since patterns are made only that they 
may be of service to the molder, one cannot have a very 

^ „ clear understanding of 

Hinges ^ 

the requirements for 
good patterns without 
a knowledge of the 
fundamental operations 
of molding. 

Molding is dis- 
tinguished as ''floor" or "bench" according as it is done 
on the floor or on a .bench. Fig. 496 illustrates what is 
known as a snap flask. This flask is used mainly in bench 
molding of small patterns. A flask is used to hold the 
sand while the mold of the pattern is being made. After 
the mold has been made, such a flask is set upon the 




Fig. 496. Snap Flask. 



320 



PATTERN MAKING. 



321 



floor with its sand, and the flask removed that it may be 
used to hold sand for still other molds, the snap fastenings 
pern.itting its easy removal. 

In V'v^. 497 is shown a floor 
flask. Tl is flask, like the snap 
Task, is divided into two parts, 
tie top pare being known as 
the cope or top flask, and the 
bottom as the drag or bottom 
flask. Sometimes one or more 
middles or cheeks are used 



Cope 



^ Middle Oft Cheek 



I 



DliAG 



•i 




Fig. 497. Floor Flask. 



when the shape of the pattern makes 
this necessary, Fig. 498. 

267. Molding Operations. — The 
F.d. 498^ Three-Part principal typical operations involved 
Flask. . , ,. , ,, 

in moldmg are as follows: (1) The 

drag flask is placed up- 
side down upon a mold- 
ing board or follower. 
(2) The pattern or drag 
part of the pattern is laid 
on the molding board, 
Fig. 499. (3) An 
amount of molding sand 
sufficient to cover the 
pattern well is riddled 
upon the pattern and 
board, after which unrid- 
dled sand is filled in, and pic. 499. Pattern Laid on Molding 
as much as will remain Board. 




322 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



left on top. (4) The drag is rammed up and struck ofif. 
Figs. 500 and 501. (5) A l)Ottom board is bedded on 
solidly and the drag flask is rolled over, Fig. 502. (6) 




Ftc. 500. Ramming tue. Drag. Fig. 501. Striking Off the 

Drag. 

The molding l)oard is now taken off and a parting made, 

iMg. 50vl The line of parting may or may not be a straight 

line. 







Fig. 502. Rolling Over Drag Fig. 503. Making Parting. 

Flask. 

Patterns may be rammed np wholly in the drag, or 
])artly in the cope and partly in the drag. When the 
pattern is to be rammed up in both drag and cope, it is 



PATTERN MAKING. 



323 



frequently constructed in two parts which \\n\\ separate 
along the line of parting. Where the pattern-maker does 
not construct a parted pattern, the molder will ram up 




Fig. 504. Placing Part to be 
Rammed up in the Cope. 



Fig. 505. Sprinkling Parting 
Sand. 



the solid pattern wholly within the drag. When the 
follow hoard has been removed after the drag has been 
rammed up and inverted, the molder must "cope down," 




Fig. 506, Cope Placed and 
Sprue Pin Set. 



Fig. 507. Venting. 



that is, remove the sand about the pattern, until the 
pattern can be withdrawn without breaking the mold. 
The molder will now place that part which is to be 
rammed up in the cope, Fig. 504. After the parting has 



324 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



been properly prepared, parting sand, dry sea sand or 
rattler sand, is sprinkled over the parting and pattern. 
Fig. 505. This sand serves to keep the molding sand of 
the cope from adhering to that of the drag. (8) The 
cope is placed and the sprue pin set, Fig. 506. Sprue 




Fig. 508. Cope Lifted Off. Fig. 509. Drawing Pattern- 

Rapping. 

pins are used that openings may be formed thru the cope 
into the drag thru which the metal may be poured. (9) 
Sand is riddled over pattern and parting after which the 
cope is filled full of sand and tamped and vented. Fig. 507. 
(10) The sprue pin or pins are withdrawn, and the cope 
lifted off and set aside. Fig. 508. (11) The pattern is 




Fig. 510. Cutting Gates. 



Fig. 511. Ready for Pouring. 



rapped, forced slightly in horizontal directions to release 
the sand from ])attern's sides, and then drawn ; gates are 
cut and cores are set if there are any, Figs. 509 and 510. 



PATTERN MAKING. 



325 



Gates are the sluiceways or channels thru which the metal 
flows from the base of the opening in the cope made by 
the removal of the sprue pin. Cores are, as the name im- 
plies, devices used to form cores or central portions of a 
mold. Their composition will be discussed later. (12) 
The cope is replaced upon the drag and either clamped 
or weighted, Figs. 497 and 511. 

268. Determining Factors in the Construction of a 
Pattern. — A pattern for a given casting can, ordinarily, be 




FiNisHLD Collar Casting 



Parting Line 

A 



A 

8 COF[ \ \ 

r\5it>L / 

I I w ii m I wiwipiii yi iiwoiiHuiii II t ill m iiii ■iwi wA i 



■|IIIIIIIIW» P II1 HH IIIIWI1I1 lllllWllw U l l lll| H *»WWIil l»W iailiWpil H 1111 




iwftin t i ^um i n i n^i iiw il iiwii t i nilitii iBi m iB 



m 

Fig. 512. Various Ways of Constructing Patterns for a Collar. 



constructed to serve its purpose in any one of a number of 
ways. In Fig. 512 are illustrated a number of different 
constructions for a pattern to produce a given casting. 
Among other things, the following factors must be con- 
sidered, one with reference to another : the number of 
castings to be made, the requirements of the pattern as 
to permanency, economy of time on 'the part of the 
molder, economy of time and materials on the part of 
the pattern-maker; ease and economy of time in working 
the castings in the machine shop. 

If but one or several castings are wanted, the economy 
of time on the part of the molder may give way to the 
economy of time or material on the part of the pattern- 
maker, etc. 



326 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




Core Oven. 



269. Molding Sand. — Molding sand must be able to 
withstand great heat and contain clay or alumina enough 
to cause it to hold its shape after the pattern is with- 
drawn. A sand composed of approxi- 
mately 6 per cent alumina and 90 per 
cent siHca will possess the qualities 
needed when tempered with a proper 
amount of water. When such sand is 
used in making a mold, it is known as 
"green sand." Green sand has a yel- 
low color when fresh, and black when 
burnt thru use in successive molds. 
Most all bench and floor molding of 
patterns is done in green sand. 

Dry sand is composed of some binder, such as flour, 
resin, glue water, glucose, linseed oil or molasses, and a 
sharp sand of almost pure silica. Dry sand is. employed 
in the making of molds in flasks or core-boxes where 
greater strength than is given by green sand is required. 
Dry-sand cores, for example, must be 
handled in setting and therefore require 
a strength not necessary in green sand 
work where the sand is not handled. 
Such dry-sand cores are baked in an 
oven known as a core oven. Fig. 513. 

270. Pattern Draft.— That a pattern 

may be drawn from the sand with as 

little distortion to the mold as possible, 

patterns are made with their vertical 

sides tapering. This tapered effect is 

known as draft, Fig. 514. The amount 

of draft to be allowed is the fraction of an inch which is 

to be added to the horizontal dimension for each foot of 

vertical dimension. When the edges of the pattern are 







Fig. 514. Effect 
OF Draft. 



PATTERN MAKING. 327 

vertical and the draw is across the grain of the wood, the 
draft should be at least Y' to the foot. If the draw is 
with the grain, the allowance may be as low as ^^". An 
allowance of |" draft per foot may be compared to the 
taper of a wedge 1 ft. long, ^" thick at the greater end 
and converging to a feather edge at the other end. On 
intricate patterns these amounts may have to be increased. 
The more draft the easier the work of the molder ; the 
increased cost of metal, which is an extra, and time in 
machining, should there be machine work to be done, 
makes it advisable to give as little draft as is possible. 
On very light, small patterns, the amount of draft may be 
as little as aV" to the foot. 

271- Shrinkage. — Since metals contract in changing 
from a molten to a solid state, allowance must be made 

by the pattern-maker in con- 

PATTtfiN Casting Moulding -^ . -^ , 

^^M^=^=^^ ^=^^^ Sand structing his. patterns when of 
'fy^^^Sife^l certain sizes. Fig. 515 will 



Mm 



^HRINKAfaE 



serve to illustrate shrinkage of 
metal in molds. 
Fig. 515. Shrinkage of ^^^ amount of shrinkage in 

Metal in Mold. > i j j . i 

metals depends greatly upon 

the shape and size of the castings, as well as upon 
the kind of metal used. In pattern-making practice, the 
most commonly used shrinkages are as follows : 

Shrinakge 
Metals ' allowance per Foot 

Aluminum i\" 

Brass, Bronze, Copper i to ^v/' 

Grey or cast-iron, white or malleable iron . . . 1/10" to ^/^ 

Steel 3^" to i" 

Lead A'' 

Care must be taken to make use of the proper shrink- 
age rule in the construction of the pattern, see Sec. 21. 



328 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 





^^B 



Fig. 516. Molding Machine. 



272. Shrinkage vs. Rappage. — In small ]:)atterns the 
effects of rappage may be sufficient to overcome the 
effects of shrinkage. If 
the pattern is 6 inches or 
less in any one direction, 
shrinkage may be disre- 
garded. If a pattern is 4 
inches or less and an ac- 
curate casting is desired, 
not only is shrinkage disregarded but the pattern will be 
constructed slightly smaller than the casting required to 
allow for ''shake" or rappage. 

It is possible by the use of 



a machine to manipulate pat- 
terns in molding so that the 
effects of rappage and draft 
are eliminated. The essen- 
tial part of such machines 
making this possible is the 
stripping plate, a plate which holds the sand wdiile the 
pattern is being drawn. Such machines are used only 
when large numbers of castings are wan.ted requiring ac- 
curacy, Fig. 516. 

273. Double Shrinkage.— 
Machines, such as that just 
mentioned, have metal patterns. 
Metal patterns are also com- 
monly used without machines 
where permanency is required. 
To allow for contraction in 
metal pattern when cast, and 
also in the castings made from 
this metal pattern, double shrinkage nuist be added to 
the first pattern. For example, if a brass pattern is to 




Fig. 517. Match Plate. 




Fig. 518. Allowance for 
Draft and Finish. 



PATTERN MAKING. 



329 



be made from which to make iron castin^-s, the first pat- 
tern will be given an allowance of f'e" for the contraction 
of the brass and Y' for the iron, a total of i%". Small 

and delicate patterns are 
made in metal in this man- 
ner, when many castings 
are desired, and placed 
upon a match plate — a 
board or plate used to 
hold both halves firmly 
while the flasks are being- 
rammed up, Fig. 517. 
274. Finish.— Not in- 
frequently parts of castings must be machined so that 
they may fit together properly. Sufficient allowance 
must be made in the construction of the pattern that the 
casting may be large enough so that the tool of the 




Fig. 519. File Finishing. 




Fig. 520. Spot Face Work. 



Fig. 521. Machining. 



machinist may get under the scale which is to be found 
upon the surface of every casting. Surfaces of castings 
will be found twisted, or warped, while lack of uniform 
tamping or ramming up will cause swells in a casting 



330 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



Fig. 518 illustrates allowances for draft for the molder 
and allowance for finish for the machinist. 

There are three kinds of finish : file, spot-face, and 
machine. File finish and spot-face are designated upon 
the drawing by the names written out in full, while 
machine finish is indicated by the letter ''f intersecting 
the line representing the surface to receive finish. 

File finish, Fig. 519, requires an allowance of not over 
^^4'' to the surface, just enough so that a few strokes of 
the file may give the desired finish. 

Spot-face work. Fig. 520, requires an allowance just 
sufficient to permit a cut beneath the hard surface scale. 
On iron 3^2" is sufficient, while on brass and aluminum the 
allowance is less. 

Allowance for machine finish, Fig. 521, will vary from 










mjL-m. 



"IN 



-& 



-I 1 L. 




FiG. 522. Machinist's Drawing. 



Y^v/', on small brass castings, to 4'' on large steel castings, 
such as engine beds. The allowance most generally made 
is iV" on brass and aluminum and ^" on iron, with J" 
to f" on steel. 

275. Making a Lay-Out. — A lay-out or pattern draw- 
ing consists of a sectional view of a pattern drawn on 
paper or a soft pine board. This drawing should be made 



PATTERN MAKING. 



331 



actual or full size, the dimensioned machinist's drawing, 
Fig. 522, providing the data, allowances for draft, finish, 
etc., being taken into consideration. Since paper varies 
in damp and in dry weather, the lay-outs made upon 
paper should have all necessary dimensions placed there- 
on, Fig. 523. Lay-outs should be carefully made, for 
reference will be made to them constantly as the work 
progresses. 




Fig. 523. Pattern-Maker's Lay-Out or Drawing. 

A board to be used for a lay-out should have a face 
and an edge planed true. In making a lay-out on a 
1)oard, Fig. 524, the try-square, or framing square, the 
dividers, the marking gage, and knife take the place of 
triangles, T-square, compass and pencil used in making 
a lav-out on paper. The shrink rule is used in either case. 

On the board lay-out, the try-square and knife are 
used in scoring lines across the grain of the wood and the 
gage for lines along the grain. The board should show 
the general construction of the pattern, the draft, the 
finish, the cores, and the core-prints of the pattern, as it 



332 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



requires these. No dimension lines are required, the 
dimensions for the pattern being taken directly from the 
board. 




Fig. 524. Lay-Out Board. 



After the lay-out has been set out, "allowance" may 
be colored with a red pencil ; the part representing the 
cores and core-prints may be outlined with a blue pencil ; 
and the various knife and gage lines may be gone over 
with a sharp-pointed 2H pencil to make them easily 
visible. The whole board may be given a coat of orange 
shellac to keep the lay-out clean and lasting. 

276. Order of Procedure. — A pattern-maker usually 
makes use of the following order of procedure : (1) The 
machine drawing. Fig. 522, is carefully studied until un- 
derstood ; (2) the lay-out is made on paper or on wood, 
Figs. 523 or 524*, (3) stock required for the pattern is 
figured; (4) the pattern is constructed; (5) stock for the 
core-box is figured ; (6) the core-box is constructed ; (7) 



PATTERN MAKING. 



333 



■iriiiiiiii)riih(.*!iijiii||iiiir 



Fig. 525. Effects 

OF Square and 

Rounded Corners. 



all work is checked up or measured to see that it meets 
requirements set by the machine drawing. 

277. Fillets. — All arrises and shoulders of a pattern 
should be rounded when there is noth- 
ing in the design to interfere seriously. 
Sharp corners in a pattern are a source 
of trouble to the molder when he at- 
tempts to draw the pattern from the 
sand. Not only do they make a poor 
appearing casting but, due to the way 
in which the molecules of metal adjust 
themselves with reference to the sur- 
faces, they make a weaker casting. The 
light portion of the drawing in Fig. 525 represents the 
weakened portion, the lines of strength tending to ar- 
range themselves at right angles to the surfaces of the 
casting. Fig. 525 also shows a shoulder filleted and an 

arris rounded. These 
( ^ Q operations are seldom 

performed until the pat- 
tern is about ready to 
be sandpapered and shellaced. 

Fillets may be made of wax, wood, leather, or any 
other material which may be shaped into the desired 
round, and retain that shape so 
long as the pattern is needed. Fil- 
lets made from beeswax are used 
in rounding shoulders of cheap 
patterns, and those which require 
a small radius. These fillets are 
laid in the shoulder by means of 
metal fillet sticks which have been heated. Fig. 526. 

On long, straight patterns, wood fillets. Fig. 527, are 
often used. When such fillets are bought in the form of 



Fig. 526. Fillet Stick. 




Fig. 527. Wood Fillet. 



334 



IVOODJVORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



PAPER IJNOEfl 

Strips of Wood 



Stock fillets already formed, the finned edges tend to curl 

over when glue is applied and an attempt made to nail 

the fillet. Strips of wood should 
be tacked over these edges to hold 
them down until the glue has had 
time to set, Fig. 528. 

Leather is by far the best 
material out of which to make fil- 
lets. It is somewhat more expen- 
sive as to first cost but is more 

durable and much easier to work than other materials. 

Being flexible, it may be applied to straight or irregular 




Ftc. 528. Wood Filli:t 
Placed. 




Fig. 529. Leather Fillets. 

surfaces, and across the grain as well as along the grain 
without fear of trouble thru unequal shrinkage of the 
pattern. Leather fillets, like 
wood fillets, may be purchased 
in stock form of various sizes. 
Fig. 529. In applying such fil- 
lets, Fig. 530, stretch the leather 
upon a board upside down and 
apply glue, after which quickly 
place the fillet and rub it into 
the shoulder by means of a fillet 
stick. If a metal stick is not 
available a wood one may be 
made from a piece of dowel 
stock. With a cloth dipped in 
warm water, immediately wipe 




Fig. 530. Leather Fillet 
Applied. 



PATTERN MAKING. 



335 



away any surplus glue which may have been pressed upon 
the surface. Sometimes shellac is applied to the fillet and 




Fig. 531. Pattern and Casting of Pipe. 

to the corner or shoulder instead of g-lue. 

278. Cores; Core-Prints; Core-Boxes. — When, in 




Fig. 532. Vertical Green-Sand Core. 



l^ i jiljiH^i' i in^if : .. f i iTni^^iytj ^ 



foundry molding-, it is desired to form a casting w^ith a 
hollow, or hollows therein, internal 
molds or cores must be used, Fig. 531. 
While many cores are made from green 
sand, most cores are made of dry sand. 
Green-sand cores are used wherever 
possible because of economy of time in 
making. Quite often whole molds are 






^a^-: 



w 



Fig. 533. Vertical 
Green- Sand Corf, 
22 



336 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



made in core or dry sand. Among the varions types of 
cores are the vertical green-sand, Fig. 532, and the 
skeleton, each made from green sand. There are also 




Fig. 534. Vertical Dry-Sand Cores. 



HOfllZONTAL DRY-5AND COR-E 



cores made in dry sand known as vertical, Figs. 533 and 
534, horizontal, Fig. 535, jacket and chest cores. 

Core-prints are the projecting pieces on a pattern. Fig. 
512, which serve no other purpose than to make or form 
impressions in the green sand into which the ends of the 
cores may be placed, giving and sustaining the cores in 
their proper position relative to the rest of the mold. 

Core-boxes are divisible boxes, 
Fig. 536, in which sand is rammed 
or tamped to form cores for use 
in molding. 

While most all core-boxes are 
made double, or in two parts, Fig. 
537, some are made in half boxes 
only. This is especially true where 

the box is complicated in its construction. Fig. 538. When 
large cores are to be made, the extra time required of the 
pattern-maker as compared to that re(|uired of the core- 




FiG. 535. Horizontal 
Dry-Sand Core. 



PATTERN MAKING. 



337 




Fig. 536. Core-Box in Use. 



maker in pasting two parts together will often determine 
whether a box is to be made of one or two halves. 

279. Vertical Cores and Core-Prints. — Vertical cores 

are such as rest in a 
vertical position 
when in the mold. 

For economy of 
time and material 
cor e-p r i n t forms 
should be standard- 
ized as to draft, etc. 
Figs. 539 and 540 
represent graphically 
such an effort. For 
all vertical prints the 
taper of the cope 
prints is to be 13^° or 'i'' to 3'', and the drag prints \\° 
or -iV" to y\ For all prints of U" diameter and under, the 
height and small diameter of the cope print should be 
equal to j^ times the diameter of the core. The depth of 
the drag print should be equal to f times the diameter 
of the core. For vertical prints larger than \V' in diam- 
eter the length of 
cope print may be V 
and of the drag print 
1^''. The diameter 
of the cope print at 
the small end may be 
^" less than the 
diameter of the core. Fig. 537. Two-Part Core-Box. 

and the larger diameter of the drag print will be slightly 
less than iV" greater than that of the core. 

The cope print is made so that it can be readily 




338 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




Fig. 538. One-Part Core-Box. 



detached from the pattern, which is done when the pattern 
is beino^ rammed up in the drag. When the drag is in- 
verted and the follow board removed, the cope print is 
placed. From this it will 
be seen that the cope 
print is rammed up 
wholly in the cope, 
hence its name, and also 
the explanation for the 
unusual taper given it 
as compared to that 
given the drag print. 

280. Horizontal 
Cores. — H o r i z o n t a 1 
cores are such as as- 
sume a horizontal position in the mold. The most com- 
mon of these are the straight, the balanced, and the 

stop-off. 

A simple horizon- 
tal core. Fig. 535, has 
its ends supported on 
the opposite sides of 
the mold. Horizontal 
core-prints should be 
made long enough to 
give the core a solid 
bearing in the mold. 
They should be as 
long as their diam- 
eter when over ^" in 
diameter, and 5'' long 
when the diameter is less than this amount. To save 
material, pattern-makers sometimes decrease the length 
of the core-print when the diameter is greater than 6" 




Fig. 539. Core-Print Detail. 



PATTERN MAKING. 



339 



Since the molding sand beneath the core is liable to dis- 
tortion under the weight of the core, causing damage to 
the mold thru floating sand, a small fillet is turned at the 
junction of print and pattern, Fig. 541. 




5aw to Length Before riAciNb between Centers 




¥iG. 540. Method of Turning Core-Prints. 

281. Balanced Cores. — A balanced core is a horizontal 
core which is supported at one end only. The print 
should be constructed so that the part of the core which 
fills its place in the mold shall be longer and heavier than 
that part of the core which is unsupported, Fig. 542. 

282. Stop-Off Cores.— A stop-off core, Figs.. 543 and 
544, or heel core, is a horizontal core with a stop-off or 



Fig. 541. Filleted 

Print and 

Pattern. 




Fig. 543. Stop-Off 
Core. 




Fig. 542. Balanced Core. 



heel print which makes the parting in molding simpler. 
Originally, straight, horizontal cores were laid into the 
impressions made by the stop-off prints and the remain- 
ing space "stopped over" or tightly filled in with molding 



340 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS, 



sand. Special stop-off cores make this latter operation un- 
necessary. The prints are made as thick as. the diameter 




^Parting 



Fig. 544. Stop-Off Core- Print. 

of the core. The sides of the prints are drafted just double 
the amount given drag- vertical prints, for if the top or 
cope of the print were to be driven off center a little, back 
draft wotild occur and it would be difficult to draw the 
pattern from the mold. 

283. Stop-Off Core-Box. y>ow[LL Pins^ 

— To make a stop-off core- 
box, (1) plan the con- 
struction so that the l)ox 
for the hole shall be at- 
tached to the box for the 
print, Figs. 545 and 546. 

(2) Part the whole box 
thru the center of the core 
and along one arris of the 
cope parting of the print. 

(3) Plane the faces of the 
parting true. (4) Dowel 
the thinner part of the box to the thicker. (5) Scribe 
kniie lines lightly square across each face of the parting. 




[NTtH TO AiR,RI6 

I^.KNIFE L INE5 



o 


.4/ \ 
1 

1 








1 

1 
1 









VltW AT AB 









Fk;. 545. Stop-Off Core-P>ox Detail. 



PATTERN MAKING. 



341 



(6) Around the center point, on the faces of each piece, 
describe an arc with a diameter equal to that of the core. 

(7) With a radius equal to the distance between the 




Fig. 546. Pattern and Stop-Off Core-Box. 

center of the core and an arris of the print, describe an 
arc upon one outer face of the box. (8) With one point 
of the dividers at the intersection of 7, Fig. 545, with the 
joint, describe an arc with a radius equal to that of the 
core-print, from arris to arris. The construction of the 
box should be evident from a study of the drawing. 

284. Wood Face-Plates. — Wood face-plates are pre- 
pared upon which pattern work may be builded and, after 





Fig. 547. Wood 
Face- Plate. 



Fig. 548. Wood Face- Plate 
FOR Large Work. 



the glue has hardened, turned to required form. Fig. 547 
illustrates a style of face-plate for work under 20 inches 
in diameter. It is built of strips of wood laid edge to 
edge and secured by cleats across the back. This form is 
attached to the lathe face-plate by means of screws. 
Screws of both cleats and face-plate should be sufficiently 
short to permit the wood face-plate to be "faced ofif" 
several times without danger to the turning tool. For 



342 



WOODWORK J'OR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



large work a face-plate similar to that of Fig. 548 is 
prepared. The metal face-i)late is fastened by screws to 
a couple of arms. After these have been balanced so 
that they will not shake the lathe in revolving, and have 
been faced, segments arc glned and then screwed to 
them. Care must be exercised in facing the ends of the 
arms that the tool may not be caught. The arms should 
be at least an inch shorter than the outside diameter of 
the segments. After this part is completed the segments 
may be further strengthened by the addition of triangular 
pieces glued on the arms and between the segments. 





Fig. 549. Handwheel Pattern of 
Solid Stock. 



Fig. 550a. Segmental 
Work. 



285. Segments. — For tem])orary use circular patterns 
arc turned or sawed from solid stock, h^ig. 549. Where 
strength is required such patterns should be Iniilt up of 
segments or cants. Figs. 550-a, b, and c. ( )wing to 
shrinkage of wood across the grain and not. along the 
grain to any ap])reciable extent, solid circular patterns 
of any size will not remain circular. Segmental patterns 
with parts laid up as are bricks in a wall, one segment 



PATTERN MAKING. 



343 



overlapping another, etc., give both strength and per- 
manency of form. 

One segment is laid off and sawed out and this used 




Fig. 550b. Segmental Work. 



Fig. 550c. Segmental Work. 



as a templet for laying out the remainder, Fig. 551. 
Where many segments are required, time is saved by 
stacking a number of blocks which have been cut to 
length, toe-nailing 
them and sawing the 
outline of the seg- 
ment on top. Trim 
the joints to fit tight- 
Iv, or trouble will be 
experienced in turn- 
ing. 60° to 90° seg- 
ments are the ones 
most often used. p^^^ ^^^^ Laying Out Segments. 

286. Lap Joint for Six-Arm Pattern. — (1) Plane the 
stock for the three members of the joint to dimensions as 
to width and thickness. (2) Gage on each edge of each 
piece lines which shall divide the thickness into three 
equal spaces. (3) Square light knife lines around the 
middle of each piece, and (4) with a radius equal to half 




344 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



the width of the piece describe a circle upon the two 
faces of each member as in Fig. 552. (5) \N\X.\\ a com- 
bination square set to 60°, knife four Hnes tangent to the 

circle just drawn on 
the faces, h^ig. 552. 
(6) With the aid of 
Figs. 553 and 554 
"c r o s s c h e c k" or 
'Svell mark" the part 
(6) Score light lines 




Fig. 552. 



Laying Out Joint for Six- 
Arm Pattern. 



to be cut out in each member 
across the edges to correspond. 



e=ss:^=a 



Fig. 553. Perspective of Parts to Joint of 
Six-Arm Pattern. 

287. Laying Out Arms. — A templet, Fig. 555, of a 
set of two arms should be made before the joint is begun 
that no mistake in dimensions may occur. The templet 
may be made of board-paper. (1) Draw a long line for 
a center line of the arm. (2) Thru a center point on 
this line. Fig. 555, c, draw two lines forming an angle of 
30° to the center line. (3) Lay out the remainder of 
the templet as shown, consulting the machine drawing. 

The distance between the points of intersection of the 
30° lines with the arcs between the arms determines the 
width of each member of the joint, w of JMg. 555. 

288. Forming Arms.^After tlie joint has \)vvn htted 
properly, neither loose nor tight, take it apart and stack 
the members with their edges and center lines together. 



PATTERN MAKING. 



345 



Fasten these together by brads, Fig. 556, having the 
outHne of the form drawn upon the top member. Saw 




Fig. 554. Joint of Six-Arm Pattern Partly Assembled. 

out upon the band-saw and smooth the edges where 
needed. 




Fig. 555. Templet for Six- Arm Pattern. 

To give to the cross-section of an arm the shape of an 
ellipse, the carpenter's method of laying out an octagonal 



Templet 



Brads Toe- 
nailed in Ends ^ 

Fig. 556. Members of Six-Arm Pattern Stacked — Ready for 

Sawing. 




346 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



prism from which to get a cylinder suggests a method 
sufficiently accurate for practical purposes. To lay off 
an octagonal prism a carpenter lays the blade of the 
square across with extremities resting on the two arrises 




:5 

Finished 

Fig. 557. Lay-Out and ELLirsi-:. 



of the stock. This gives 24", of course. While in this 
position he marks at the 7" and the 17'' graduations. 
Gage settings at these marks indicate the amount of 
chamfer to be given to form the octagon from the s(|uare. 
\\ ith the octagon prism formed he can readily form a 
prism of double the number of sides without furtlier 
guide-lines. 

An ellipse is a fore^-shortened 
circle. Applying this principle 
to the rectangular spoke or arm 
as indicated in Fig. 557, an el- 
lipse can be formed sufficiently 
accurate for practical purposes. 
On the td^Q, the ga^e setting 
will be 7/24 of the thickness ; 
on the broad surface it will be 7/24 of the width. After 
laying out these lines put on the chamfer and then finish 
the ellipse by increasing the number of chamfers until the 
sandpaper may be expected to complete the work. 




Fig. 558. Joint of Five- 
Spoke Spider. 



PATTERN MAKING. 



347 



Fig. 558 illustrates a different type of joint used in 
forming a five-spoked spider. One end of each member 
is cut to an angle of 72° to form a butt joint after which a 
spline may be made use of, if required, to give the neces- 
sary strength. If the key or spline is properly propor- 
tioned and set in glue this makes a strong joint. 

289. Spur Gear Teeth.— Six methods of attaching spur 
gear teeth to a gear pattern are illustrated in Fig. 559. 
(1) The tooth is cut out of a solid block after the whole 
gear pattern is laid out. This method is the one used 
where the gear pattern is small and has no spokes or web. 
The grain of the block should extend in the direction of 
the length of the tooth. (2) Teeth are cut out of blocks 

which have been glued 
to the rim. In this case 
the pattern is usually 
large and has a web. 
The rim of the pattern 
should be faced, or 
turned, to the diameter 
desired at the root of 
the tooth. These blocks should have their grain extend- 
ing in the direction of the tooth, across the rim, and 
should be faced off in the lathe to the width of the rim 
and to the over-all dimension or diameter, before the gear 
is laid out. (3) Teeth are cut from blocks which have 
l)een attached to the rim by means of slightly tapered 
dovetails. These blocks, which should be turned to 
length and thickness before the teeth are laid out, are 
removed from the rim, shaped and then replaced. (4) 
Teeth are cut from blocks which have been set in and 
glued to the rim. (5 and 6.) Teeth are cut from blocks 
by shaping them in a jig, Fig. 560, after which they are 
fastened to the rim. Equally spaced knife lines should 




Ftg. 559. Methods of Attaching Spur 
Gear Teeth. 



348 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



be carefully laid out across the rim so that each tooth 
may be correctly placed. In the latter case thin strips 
are prepared to go between the teeth. Such gear 
tooth jigs are made of hard wood. A slot, slightly 
longer than the length of tooth, is cut in the top and has 
thru its bottom a screw hole at the approximate middle. 
Two sharp brads pro- 
jecting from the center 
line at the bottom of 
the opening serve to 
hold the blank tooth in 
place once the screw 
has been inserted into 
the blank thru the jig. 

There are a number 
of different ways of 
laying out gear tooth 
forms, such as that 
shown on the jig. For 
practical purposes the 
Willis or Grant odontographs, which carry their own 
directions for use, will be found sufficiently accurate. 

With such jigs the blank tooth may be inserted in the 
opening and formed by means of the edged tools to 
correspond to the outline of the jig, as respects the 
shaping of the tooth. The sandpaper cylinder of the 
lathe, Fig. 561, may be used to finish the tooth. 

290. Bevel Gears. — Since all lines of bevel gears are 
elements of cones, the teeth are more difficult to cut than 
the spur gear. Bevel gear teeth may be made separately 
in jigs similar to those described above. In this case 
the tooth will be l)eveled. 

Only on large gear wheels is trouble taken to cast 




Fig. 560. Jig for Shaping Spur 
Gear Teeth. 



PATTERN MAKING. 



349 



teeth. Small gears are cast in blanks, Fig. 562, and the 
teeth machined. 




Fig. Sol. Sandpapering Gear Teeth on Lathe. 



291. Split Patterns; Dowels. — For the convenience 
of the molder many patterns are split, or parted, in such 

a way as to make it easy 
to withdraw them from 
the mold. The two parts 
are jointed together and 
doweled. The dowel-pins 
are used to center split 
patterns and core-boxes. 
They may be made by 
sawing long, square strips 
from some comparatively 
hard wood, as maple, plan- 
ing off the arrises until 
the stick becomes octagonal, then driving these thru a 
dowel-pin plate. They may be made on a lathe by the 




Fig. 562. Gear Blank Pattern. 



350 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



Fig. 563. Brass 
Dowel. 



use of a dowel shaper. Most shops carry in stock wood 

and brass doweling. Brass dowels, Fig. 563, are more 

durable than wood pins and permit a more 

accurate centering of the parts. Wood 

i:)ins are more practical for school shop 

use. The shaping of the projecting end of 

a dowel pin and the manner of placing 

is one of the first things to distinguish 

the mechanic from the amateur. Dowel- 
pins should be set in such a manner that 

there can be no doubt for a moment in the 

mind of the molder as to the way the separated parts are 

to go together. To accomplish this, dowel-pins are set 

at unequal distances from the ends of the pattern. 

Ends of dowel-pins should not 
show on the outside of patterns, 
while on core-prints it does not 
matter. Dowel-pins should be 
set in the cope part of the pattern 
and have a projecting portion of 
not less than the diameter of the 

pin to insert into and center the drag part. Fig. 564. 
292. Turning Split Patterns. — If a split pattern is to 

be turned between centers it nmst be made safe so that 



|l PARTING LiNL 

i' or Pattern 



mi i i i l liii i iiiii i <| i ii i i iini i i iii nii iii i^i i i i i i imii ii i ii iii| i i i 
it 



I V 



||-DowELL Pin 
-t-DowELL Pin Hole 



._i 



Fig. 564. Wood Dowel- 
Pin. 





Fig. 565. Parts 
Fastened by Screws. 



Fig. 566. Corrugated 
Fasteners. 



it shall not fly apart in motion. The stock should be long 
enough, J" at least, so that screws may be inserted, Fig. 



PATTERN MAKING. 



351 



565. Four corrugated fasteners, Fig. 566, are best for 
holding small split patterns while turning. 

293. Tee-Pipe Fittings.— Tee-pipe fittings, Fig. 567, 
which have a main body and a branch, are made as split 
patterns and turned from two pieces of stock which have 
been jointed and doweled together. After the stock is 

turned to dimensions, a center 
line is drawn around the main 
body. Cut away the surplus 
stock and lightly knife the cen- 
ter lines across the parting- 
surfaces. 

The pattern may be con- 
structed by mitering the two 
members together, Fig. 568, or 
by coping the branch to the 
main member or body. 
To miter the two members together, (1) scribe the 
center line upon the butt of the branch ; (2) saw off the 
two corners ; (3) smooth these two surfaces so that they 
sliall be at right angles, one to the other, and symmetric- 




FiG. 567. Tee- Pipe Fitting. 




Fig. 568. Mitered Members of Pattern for Tee-Pipe Fitting. 

ally placed with reference to the center-line or axis of 
the branch. (4) Saw out the stock from the main 
meniber and smooth its surfaces so that the branch may 
fit snugly. 

23 



352 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



Any size of branch may be fitted to any body of pat- 
tern when the body of the pattern is of the same size as 
the branch, or larger, by the use of 
the coped joint. To make the joint 
stronger a dovetailed piece is often 
inlaid as shown in Fig, 569. 

In coping such joints, the miters 
will be cut on the end of the branch, 
tl-.e intersecting line of miter and I'^^- 569. Coped Jotnt 

. ' . . 11- r Detailed. 

curved surface givmg the hue tor 

coping. After this the branch may be clamped to a 
block as shown in Fig. 570 and the waste stock cut out 
on the band-saw. The main body should be blue chalked 





Fig. 570. Coping a Member of Tee- Pipe Pattern. 



where the joint is to come and the two members rubbed 
together with the partings resting upon a true metal or 
wood surface plate. The marks upon 
the branch will clearly show where 
the joint needs trimming to make it 
fit properly. 

The core-box for the 90° tee-pipe 
is simply constructed by joining two 
straight core-boxes at right angles to ^ic. 571. Core-Box 
each other, Fig. 571, and should be for Tee- Pipe Fitting. 




PATTERN MAKING. 



353 



strengthened by gluing and nailing a board to its back. 

294. Elbow Offset; Return Bend.— (1) Plane true 

one surface of a block which has been cut at least V^ 

larger than the re- 
quired diameter. (2) 
Saw off the square 
corners. (3) Center 
and affix the face- 
plate to the true sur- 
face with a thin piece 
of wood of even 
Fig. 572. Templet for Convex Turning, thickness between 

them for backing. 
(5) After screwing the face-plate to the lathe, turn 
roughly to the largest possible diameter. (6) Turn 
accurately to the thickness of one-half the pattern. 
(7) Cut the inside and the outside diameters to ac- 
curate dimensions. (8) Test for curvature by means 
of a templet cut out of a thin piece of wood, Fig. 572. 





Fig. 573. Members for Return Bend Pipe Fitting Pattern. 



(9) Cut and fit the piece until a true semicircular cross- 
section is formed. (10) After the face-plate has been 
taken off the lathe, remove it from this ring. (11) With 



354 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 




a center head of the combination square, Fig". 40, lay ofif 
on the joint of the ring as many pieces as may be required 
and saw in a miter-box or on the 
band-saw table. (12) Plane the 
ends. (13) Cut round holes in 
them, Fig. 573, for the dowel-pins 
of the core-prints to fit into. (14) 
Turn between centers the core- 
prints with filleted flanges and 
dowels attached, Fig. 573. 

The curved interior of the core-box for these pipe 
fittings may be turned upon the face-plate in a manner 
somewhat similar to that used in turning the pattern. 
(1) A block at least U'' larger than the diameter of 
the core, and at least Y' thicker than the radius of the 
core is affixed to the face-plate. (2) The face of the 



Fig. 574. Templet for 
Concave Turning. 




Fig. 575. Core-Box, Pattern of Pipe Fitting, Elbow. 



block is cut true, and (3) the accurate dimensions laid 
out upon it. (4) After the depth has been cut with the 
parting tool, (5) cut the concave form, testing as the 
turning i)r()ceeds 1)v means of a coun'cx tem])]et, iMg. 
574, wdiich has l)een pre])ared for this jMirpose. (6) Cut 



PATTERN MAKING. 



355 




the box lip into as many parts as may be required and 

join the straig-ht boxes to these properly, strengthening 

the whole box by joining a board 
to the back of it, Fig. 575. 

295. Loose Pieces. — Many pat- 
terns could not be drawn from the 
mold without some of the parts or 
pieces being left loose. These 
loose pieces, Fig. 576, are held in 
place by a few loose nails or by 

dowels to aid the molder in making an easy draw from 

the mold. If the part were to be made solid as a part of 

the pattern the mold 

would be torn up as the 

pattern is drawn from 

it. 



L005E PIECE5 

Fig. 576. Loose Piece 
Patterns. 



/ 



\ 



Fig. 577. Loose Piece Patterns. 



Should it happen that loose pieces do not aid the 
molder in getting the required shape of casting, a core- 
print. Fig. 546, is affixed to the pattern 
properly and that part of the casting 
cored out. The molder may well be 
consulted as to whether the projecting 
part should be cored or made loose. In 
such work as casting machine ways, 
the machinist should be consulted as to 
whether the projecting part shall be 
made loose or be given a good draft, 
Fig. 577. 

296. Burning Iron. — Small holes are 
given draft and smooth sides thru the 
use of burning irons. Fig. 578. 

297. Affixing Letters or Numerals. 
— Names or numbers should be placed 
upon a pattern as far as possible where 




Fig. 578. Using a 
Burning Iron. 



356 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



they will not interfere with the drawing of the same, on 
the side which is opposite the parting line, especially on 
the drag face where the mold will be free of floating sand. 




Fig. 579. Lettering Placed on Draft. 



If the name or numerals must be placed upon draft, Fig. 
579, this may be accomplished by attaching the letters 
or numerals to a loose piece. Fig. 580 shows type of 
letters suited to pattern work. 
298. Varnishing Patterns. 
— Patterns are varnished that 
the moisture of the molding 
sand may not affect their shape 
or injure the joints. Copal 
varnish is best, but, owing to Fig. 580. Pattern Letter 
the length of time it requires Styles. 

in drying, shellac is used in- 
stead, almost universally. Varnish leaves the pattern 
with a smooth, hard surface which makes drawing from 
the sand easier than would be the case with the bare wood. 




PATTERN MAKING. 357 

Coloring matter is added to the shellac for two reasons : 
it gives to the molder a means of determining the kind 
of metal in which the pattern is to be cast, and helps 
him to distinguish the purposes of the various parts to 
the pattern. 

There is no hard and fast rule as to the kind of color 
to be used, but a common practice is to color the orange 
shellac with lampblack for patterns to be cast in iron. 
Core-prints will be left natural, altho sometimes they 
are colored by using shellac mixed with Chinese ver- 
million. Patterns to be cast in brass are usually painted 
red with either natural orange or black shellac core prints. 



INDEX. 

[Numbers Refer to Pages] 



A 

Adjustments on Surfacer.... 93 
Angular Boring Attachment 52 

Angular Measurement 182 

Ash 14 

Assembling the Sections ,...284 

Automatic Hand Drill 53 

Awls 54 

B 

Babbitting Bearings 145 

Backing for Face-Plate 205 

Banding, Directions for 
Building up a Typical . . . .219 

Band-Saw Ill 

Automatic Filing and Fit- 
ting Outfit 115 

Fitting and Filing a ....114 

Operation of Ill 

Resawing Attachment for 

113 

Ripping Fence 113 

Saw Guides 114 

Basswood 15 

Beads, Turning 200 

Beam Compass 36 

Belt Drives 145 

Hooks 138 

Lacing 139, 141, 142 

Preliminary Stretching . . 142 

Punch 61 

Belting, Formulae 144 

Strength of 143 



Bevel Gears 348 

Birch 16 

Bit, Extension 52 

Blind Mortise-and-Tenon . . . 166 
Blow Torch, Brazing with ..116 
Board Measure Table, Essex 27 
Boring Machine, Operation of 

a 119 

Post 119 

Boring Machines 118 

Brace Measure Table 26 

Brazing Clamp 115 

Brazing Small Band-Saws. .115 

Breast Drill 52 

Brush, Directions for Using.. 241 

Brushes 239 

Burning Iron 355 

Burnisher 70 

Butternut 16 

Butt Gage 33 

C 

Calculating Speeds and Dia- 
meters of Pulleys, Saws, 

Grindstones, Etc 149 

Calipers . . .' 36 

Cane Seating 315 

Carcase Construction 300 

Carver's Punch 42 

Carving, General Directions. ,223 

Tools 42 

Cauls 273 

Cedar 12 

Centering Stock 185 



359 



360 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



Chair, Attaching Rockers ...270 

Bending Back Slat 270 

Marking Legs for 

Length 269 

Seat Frame 267 

Chairs 267 

Cheek 321 

Cherry 16 

Chestnut 17 

Chisel, Butt 38 

Corner 38 

Mortise 38 

Chucks ; Their Use 208 

Circular Miter Saws 107 

Plane 42 

Saws 94 

Circular Saw, Gumming .... 109 

Jointing Teeth 109 

Setting Stake for 108 

Single Arbor 94 

Universal 94 

Clamp, Brazing 115 

Clamping Framed Structures. 279 

Irregular Posts 265 

Single Arbor 94 

Miters 286 

Table Tops 278 

Clamps, Adjusting the 281 

Clearance Block 101 

Cleats 301 

Classification of Woods 11 

Combination Square 35 

Concave Cuts, Turning 201 

Conifer 11 

Convex and Concave Scrap- 
ing 207 

Convex Cuts, Long 202 

Short 200 

Cope 321 

Coped Joint 180, 184 

Core-Box Cutter 120 



Core-Box Plane 49 

Stop-Off 340 

Core Oven 326 

Cores and Core-Prints, Ver- 
tical 337 

Cores, Balanced 339 

Dry-Sand 336 

Green-Sand 335 

Horizontal 338 

Stop-Off 339 

Core, Segmental 272 

Corner Fastenings 265 

Corner, Reinforced 265 

Coupling, Flexible 150 

Cover, Muslin 308 

Cross-Lap 156 

Cross-Lap Joint, Directions 

for 156, 158 

Curved Work 272 

Cut-Off Gage, Miter ........ 99 

Cutter Heads : Set Up and 

Fitment of Knives 83 

Cutting Grooves 293 

Cutting Off; Use of Parting 

Tool 193 

Cutting Speed, Rule for .... 149 
Cutting Tenons with Univer- 
sal Saw 100 

Wedges on Circular Saw. 103 
Cypress 13 

D 

Dado 155 

Directions for 155 

Plane 44 

Deciduous 12 

Designing, Furniture 255 

Die, Belt Splicing, for Sand- 
ed Belt 130 

Dovetail Corner, Directions 
for 289 



INDEX. 



361 



Dovetail Joint 171 

Directions for 172 

Doweled Joint 183 

Doweling 161 

Directions for 162 

Dowel Marker 183 

Plate 161 

Drag 321 

Drawer Construction 288 

Drawer, Directions for 291 

Runners and Guides ....287 

Drawing-Knife 51 

Duplicate Parts, Laying Out. 153 

Marking 154 

Dust Exhaust System 147 

E 

Elbow Offset; Return Bend.. 353 

Elm 17 

Emery Wheel Dresser 62 

Endogen 11 

Evergreen 12 

Ejtogen 11 

Expansion Bit 51 

F 

Face- Plate and Chuck Work. 202 
Face-Plates ; Preparation of 

Stock 203 

Fasteners, Corrugated 350 

Fastening Tops 286 

Feed Rolls, Sectional 89 

File, Auger Bit 60 

Cleaner 61 

Files and Rasps 55 

Files, Flat Bastard 59 

Half-Round 59 

Round 59 

Slim Taper 58 

Square 58 



Files, Blunt Band 58 

Mill 58 

The Cuts of 60 

Fillers 242 

Fillet Cutter 120 

Fillets ..2>2,Z 

Filling with Paste Filler ....243 

Finish, Metals 329 

Finishes, Dull 250 

Polished 250 

Gloss 250 

Egg-Shell Gloss 249 

Typical 249 

Finishing Inlays 223 

Carvings 237 

Fitting a Door 295 

Fitting and Filing Circular 

Saws 108 

Flasks 320 

Flat Groover 120 

Flowing Copal Varnish ....249 

Forming Arms 344 

Forstner Auger Bit 63 

Frieze 299 

Fuming 245 

Furniture Construction 254 

G 

Gates, Pattern 325 

Gear Speed, Rule for 151 

Glass Cutter 55 

Glue Joint 158 

Directions for 158 

Planing Edges for 159 

Testing 160 

Glue Pots 75 

Grinder, Automatic 135 

Grinding 136 

Grooving, and Dado or Gain- 
ing Heads for Universal 
Saws 105 



362 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



Grounding Out and Mold- 
ing 229 

Guard, Shaper 126 

Guards, Band-Saw 112 

Jointer 87 

Saw- 96 

Gum Wood 18 

H 

Hammer, Gimp 306 

Hand Drill 53 

Handled Scraper 49 

Hand Planer, Electric Grind- 
er for 85 

Jointer for 84 

Jointing and Setting At- 
tachment 85 

Or Jointer 80 

Hardwoods 12 

Haunched Mortise-and-Tcnon 

293 

Hickory 19 

Hinging a Door 296 

Hopper Joint 181 

Hundredths Scale 28 

I 

Inlaying; General Considera- 
tion 215 

Inlays of Irregular Outline.. 215 

J 

Joinery 152 

General Directions for.. 152 

Jointer, Depth Gage for 85 

Guard 87 

Knives ; Testing for 
Position 84 

Jointing an Edge 86 



A Saw 64 

A Surface 86 

Joints, Additional 173 

Beaded 180 

Bevel-Shoulder ..179 

Eutt 174 

Double Mortise-and-Ten- 

on 176 

Dovetail Dado 178 

Dovetail Mortise-and- 

Tenon 177 

Doweled Butt 174 

Draw Bolt 174 

Drawer Corner 180 

End Lap 175 

Fished 178 

Fox Tail Tenon 176 

Gained 175 

Glued and Blocked 174 

Lapped and Strapped ...178 

Lapped Dovetail 175 

Ledge and Miter 177 

Ledge or Rabbet 175 

Matched 180 

Middle Lap 175 

Pinned Mortise-aiul-Ten- 

on 176 

Rabbeted and iMllislered. 18(1 

Scarf 178. 179 

Slip 176 

Splice 178, 179 

Spline Miter 177 

Stretcher 177 

Stub Mortise-and-Tenon. 176 
Thru Mortise-and-Ten- 
on 175 

Thriist 179 

Toe Nailed 174 

Tusk Tenon 177 

Wedged Mortise-and- 
Tenon 176 



INDEX. 



363 



K 

Kerfing a Cove for Molding 
or Core-Box 103 

Key, Directions for 163 

Keyed Tenon-and-Mortise. . . 163 

li 

Lacing, Wire 138 

Lap Joint for Six- Arm Pat- 
tern 343 

Large Gouge, Use of 188 

Large Skew, Use of 191 

Lathe 126 

Counter Shaft 126 

Motor Head Driven ....127 
Position of Operator ...188 

Under Driven 127 

Laying off Consecutive 

Measurements 198 

Laying Out Arms 344 

Layout, Making 330 

Letters or Numerals, Affix- 
ing 355 

Light and Shade, Carving. . .235 

Line Carving 225 

Locks 298 

Lumberman's Board Stick... ?)7 

M 

Making a Layout 330 

Mandrel Work, Turning ...211 

Maple 20 

Marquetry, Directions for . .221 

Miter-Box 134 

Miter Gage, Universal 100 

Miter Joint 170 

Clamping 170 

Directions for 170 

Nailing 171 

Miter Plane and Chute Board 

134 



Miter, Sawing 99, 100 

Square 35 

Modeling 74, 234 

Moldings 305 

Molding Board 322 

Operations 321 

Sand 326 

Molding, Used in Carving. . .231 

Mortise, Directions for 165 

Directions for Cutting 

168, 169 
Directions for Laying- 
Out "....167 

Gages 33 

Mortise in the Tenon, Di- 
rections for 165 

Mortiser 119 

Mortiser, Operation of a Hol- 
low Chisel 121 

Mullion 295 

N 

Nail Puller 54 

Nails. Ornamental 310 

Needle, Caning 317 

For Reed Weaving 312 

Nut Augers 51 

O 

Oak 20 

Octagon Scale 25 

Odontograph 348 

Oil or Copal Varnishes 248 

Operating a Swing Cut-Off 

Saw 80 

Operation of a Surfacer .... 90 

Of Hand Planer 85 

Order of Procedure in Use 

of Machines 77 

Outside Calipers, Use of ...190 



364 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



P 

Painting 251 

Paneling 292 

Panel, Placing Glass 295 

Parting, Molding 323 

Patching 250. 271 

Pattern, Determining Factors 
in the Construction of ....325 

Draft 326 

Pattern-Maker's Gage 34 

Knife 38 

Pattern-Making 320 

Order of Procedure 332 

Materials 320 

Period Furniture 303 

Adam 305 

Chippendale 304 

Elizabethan 304 

Gothic 303 

Hepplewhite 304 

Jacobean 304 

Louis XVI 303 

Mission 30S 

Queen Anne 304 

Renaissance 303 

Sheraton 304 

Victorian 305 

Picture Frame Miter-Box and 

Nailing Clamp 135 

Pierced Ornamentation 237 

Pilaster 299 

Pine 13 

Pinned Mortise-and-Tenon . . 183 

Pitch, Roof 29 

Planer or Surfacer 88 

Planing Device 86 

Plinth 299 

Plow and Matching Plane... 46 

Plug Cutter 61 

Plumb and Lievel 32 



Posts or Legs 262 

Power Transmission 137 

Pulley Speeds, Rules for . . , 149 

R 

Rabbet and Filletster Plane.. 44 
Rabbeted Corner, Directions 

for 289 

Rabbeting 294 

Rabbet or Rebate Plane 43 

Rafter Cuts 30 

Rafter, Hip 30 

Jack 31 

Length, Determining ... 32 

Rise 29 

Run 29 

Table 29 

Valley 30 

Rail, Door 295 

Rapping 324, 328 

Recipes, Wood Finishing ...252 

Regulator, Upholstery 306 

Ribbon Carving 227 

Carving, Laying Out for, 228 

Ring, Turning a 208 

Rods, Furniture Construction 

302 
Rough Scraping, Turning . .206 

Router Plane 48 

Rule, Flexible Folding 24 

Pattern-Maker's Shrink- 
age 24 

Rush Fiber Seat 312 

S 

Safety Cutter Heads 83 

Sander, Disc and Spindle ...131 

Drum 128 

The Belt 129 

Sanders 128 



INDEX. 



365 



Sandpapering and Finishing, 

Turning 212 

Saw Clamp 66 

Jointer 64 

Set 65 

Scraper Plane 48 

Scraping Tools, Turning . . . 4U 

Scratch Stock 220 

•Screw and Plug Bit 61 

Scribing Posts 285 

Scroll Saw 117 

Seat, Caned 318 

Slip 310 

Seating, Fiber 314 

Seats, Reed 313 

Segments, Pattern 342 

Selection of Belting 143 

"Setting-Up" a Hand Planer 80 

Shaper 125 

Shaper Collars and Cutters.. 125 
Shaft Drive vs. Individual 

Motor Drive 148 

Sharpening Auger Bits 62 

Carving Tools 73 

Lathe Tools 71 

Saws 64 

Scrapers 70 

Shellac 247 

Finishes 248 

Orange 247 

White 247 

Shelving 301 

Shrinkage 327 

Double 328 

Shrinkage vs. Rappage 328 

Skew or Turner's Chisel .... 39 

Use of Heel of the 197 

Use of Toe of the 195 

Slats; Splats or Splads ; 

Balusters 265 

Softwoods 12 



Speed Indicator 150 

Speed, Rule for 151 

Rules for Cutting 149 

Rule for Pulley 149 

Sphere, Turning 211 

Spiral Screwdriver 54 

Splicing Belts 138 

Split Patterns, Dowels 349 

Spring or Box Seat 310 

Springs 311 

Spruce 14 

Sprue Pin 323 

Spur Gear Teeth 347 

Square, Framing 25 

Stains 244 

Fumed 245 

Oil 245 

Spirit 245 

Water 245 

Stile, Door 295 

Stretcher 299 

Strings and Bandings 218 

Directions for Laying . .219 

Structural Details 260 

Superposition 153 

Surfacer, Jointer for 84 

Jointing and Setting At- 
tachment for 85 

Surface Table 75 

Surfacing Table Tops 279 

Swing Cut-Off Saw 78 

Sycamore 22 

T 

Table for Set-Up of Univer- 
sal Saw for Compound 

Miters 105 

Taper Cuts, Long 197 

Tee- Pipe Fittings 351 

Templets 303 



366 



WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



Tenon, Directions for ..163, 166 

I enoner 123 

Tenon, Sawing on Machine.. 101 
Tenons, Laying Off on 

Curved Stock 270 

Tool Rest, Adjusting the ...187 

Tracery Designs 231 

Tracing, Painting 242 

Trammel Points 36 

Trees, Broad-Leaved 12 

Trimmer 131 

" Table 132 

Tables for Segmental 

Work 133, 134 

Tulip Wood 22 

Turner's Gouge 39 

Turning Between Centers. . . .185 

Split Patterns 350 

Twist Drill Gage 35 

U 

LTniversal Plane 46 

Upholstering. Simple 306 

V 

Varnish, Copal 247 

Spirit 247 



Varnishes 247 

X'arnishing Patterns 356 

Veneering 275 

Veneer, Knife Cut 275 

Press 278 

Rotary Cut 273 

Saw Cut 275 

Scraper 40 

X'enting, Molding 323 

\^-Groovcs. Making Full 198 

Vise, Adjustable Circular 
Saw 110 

W 

Wadding 30S 

Walnut 23 

Washer Cutter 61 

Waxing 246 

Webbing Stretcher 306 

Wind, Testing for 255 

Wood-Carving 223 

Wood Face-Platcs 341 

Finishes 239 

Rasp, Half-Round 59 

Wood-Turning Tools 39 

Woven Reed Seat 312 

Wrecking Bar 54 



CORRELATED COURSES 

IN WOODWORK AND 
MECHANICAL DRAWING 

By IRA S. GRIFFITH 
f'hairman of the Manual Arts Department, The University of jMissouri. 

A handbook on organization, lesson outlines and methods of teachinci;. It 
is designed to meet the every-day meed of the teacher of woodworking and 
mechanical drawing for reliable information concerning organization of courses, 
subject matter, and methods of teaching. It covers classification and arrange- 
ment of too] operations for grades 7, 8, 9 and 10, shop organization, allot- 
ment of time, design, shop excursions, stock bills, cost of material, records, 
shop conduct, the lesson, maintenance, eqtiipment, and lesson outlines for 
grammar and high schools. It is based on sound pedagogy, thoro technical 
knowledge and successful teaching experience, and is extremely practical. For 
the convenience of teachers, the drawings used in "Projects for Beginning 
Woodwork and Mechanical Drawing" ard "Advanced Projects in Woodwork," 
are jirinted in this book. It is considered the most comjirehensive treatment of 
the subject of teaching woodworking ever i)ublished. 

238 pages, 100 full page jilates of working drawings. 

PRICE, POSTPAID, $1.50. 



Essentials of Woodworking 

P.y IRA S. GRIFFITH 
Chairman of the Manual Arts Department, The University of Missouri. 

A textbook written especially for grammar and high school students. A 
clear and comprehensive treatment of woodworking tools, materials, and pro- 
cesses, to su]ii)]ement, but not to take the place of the instructions given by 
the teacher. The book does not contain a course of models; it may be used 
with any course. It is illustrated with iihotographs and nimierons ]ien drawings. 

TREATS OF 

I Laying out Tools, Their Uses VIII Type Forms 

II Saws IX Elementary Cabinet Work 

III Planes X Wood 

IV Boring Tools; Boring XI Lumbering and Milling 
V Chiseling XII Common Woods 

VI Form Work: Modeling XIII Wood Finishing 

VIT Laying Out Duplicate Parts; Appendix — Additional Joints, Wood 
Scraping and Sandpapering, Finishing Recipes — Working 

Fastening Pai-ts ' Drawings 

THE STANDARD TEXTBOOK ON ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 
PRICE, POSTPAID, 7.5 CENTS. 



The Manual Arts Press 

PEORIA, ILLINOIS 

24 



PROJECTS FOR BEGINNING WOODWORK 
AND MECHANICAL DRAWING 

By IRA S. GRIFFITH 
Chairman of tlie Manual Arts Department, The University of Missouri. 

A book of problems for the use of grammar grade pupils. It consists of 
working drawings and working directions. The projects are such as have 
l)roven of exceptional service where woodworking and mechanical drawing are 
taught in a thoro, systematic manner in the seventh and eighth grades. The 
aim has been to provide successful rather than unique problems. The 50 pro- 
jects in the book have been selected and organized with the constant aim of 
securing tlie highest educational results. The book is especially suited for use 
in connection with "Essentials of Woodworking" by the same author. 

PRICE, POSTPAID, 75 CENTS. 



FURNITURE MAKING 

Advanced Projects in Woodwork 

By IRA S. GRIFFITH 

Chairman of the Manual Arts Department, The University of Missouri. 




A book of problems for the use of high school pupils. It consists of fifty 
plates and accompanyi.ng notes. It is essentially a collection of problems in 
furniture making, selected or designed with reference to school use. On the 
plate with each working drawing is a good perspective sketch of the completed 
object In draftsmanship and refinement of design these problems are of 
superior quality. It is in every zvay an excellent collection and is sure to 
establish a high standard in any school zvhere it is used with reasonable 
intelligence. PRICE, POSTPAID, 75 CENTS. 



CARPENTRY 

By IRA S. GRIFFITH 
Chairman of the Manual Arts Department, The University of ^lissouri. 

A well illustrated textbook for use in vocational schools, trade schools, 
technical schools and by apprentices to the trade, presenting the principles of 
house framing in a clear and fundamental way. An admirable combination 
of practical experience and constructive principles. In preparation. 



The Manual Arts Press 



PEORIA, 



ILLINOIS 



Books on the Manual Arts 

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION IN WOOD. By Noyes. 

A book full of charm and distinction. It illustrates a series of projects 
and gives suggestions for other similar projects, together with information re- 
garding tools and processes for making. A pleasing volume abundantly and 
beautifully illustrated. $1.50. 

HANDWORK IN WOOD. By Noyes. 

A comprehensive and scholarly treatise, covering logging, saw-milling, 
seasoning and measuring, hand tools, wood fastenings, equipment and care of 
the shop, the common joints, types of wood structures, principles of joinery, 
and wood finishing. 304 illustrations — excelLent pen drawings and many photo- 
graphs. The best reference book available for teachers of woodworking. $2.00. 

WOOD AND FOREST. By Noyes. 

A reference book for teachers of woodworking. Treats of wood, distribu- 
tion of American forests, life of the forest, enemies of the forest, destruction, 
conservation and uses of the forest, with a key to the common woods by 
Filibert Roth. Describes 67 principal species of wood with maps of the habitat, 
leaf drawings, life size photographs and microphotographs of sections. Pro- 
fusely illustrated. $3.00. 

MANUAL ARTS FOR VOCATIONAL ENDS. By Crawshaw. 

A strong and convincing plea for the development of the present school 
machinery to serve the ends of vocational education. It treats the problem in 
a practical way, giving concrete working helps, and is a source of inspiration 
to manual arts teachers and others interested in the problem. 85 cents. 

HANDWORK INSTRUCTION FOR BOYS. By Pabst. 

A philosophical and historical review of manual training for boys and a 
discussion of the systems in voguie in the several European countries and in 
America, by the director of the normal school for teachers of manual training 
at Leipsic. $1.00. 

HANDCRAFT IN WOOD AND METAL. By Hooper and Shirley. 

A valuable reference book on craftwork in wood and metal. It treats of 
historic craftwork, materials used in handcrafts, designing, decorative processes, 
the historic development of tools, the theory of the cutting action of tools, and 
the equipment of the school workshop. $3.00. 

WOOD PATTERN-MAKING. By Purfield. 

A clear, concise treatise on the fundamental principles of pattern-making. 
It presents the best methods of construction and those most easily understood 
by the student. A practical text for the high school, trade school, technical 
school and engineering college students. New edition $1.00. 

BEGINNING WOODWORK. By VanDeusen. 

A valuable textbook for rural schools, by one who has made a special study 
of the manual training problems in the country school. A full and clear 
description in detail of the fundamental processes of elementary benchwork in 
wood. $1.00. 
FURNITURE DESIGN FOR SCHOOLS AND SHOPS. By Crawshaw. 

A manual on furniture design containing a collection of plates showing 
perspective drawings of typical designs, representing particular types of furni- 
ture. Each perspective is accompanied by suggestions for rearrangements and 
the modeling of parts. The text discusses and illustrates principles of design 
as applied to furniture. Should be in the hands of every teacher of cabinet 
making and designing. $1.00. 

PROBLEMS IN WOODWORKING. By Murray. 

A collection of forty plates of working drawings of problems in bench 
work that have been successfully worked out by boys in grades from seven 
to nine, inclusive. 75 cents. 

THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS 

PEORIA, ILLINOIS 



Books on the Manual Arts 

PROBLEMS IN FARM WOODWORK. By Blackburn. 

A book of working drawings of 100 practical problems relating to agri- 
culture and farm life. Each problem is accompanied by text treating of 
■'Purpose," "Material," "Bill of Stock," "Tools," "Directions," and "As- 
sembly." Of special value to the pupil and teacher of agricultvire and manual 
arts in rural schools, and to the boy on the farm. $1.00. 

PROBLEMS IN FURNITURE MAKING. By Crawshaw. 

Contains 4.3 full-page working drawings of articles of furniture. In ad- 
dition to the working drawings, there is a perspective sketch of each article 
completed. There are 36 pages of text giving notes on the construction of 
each project, chapters on the "Design," and "Construction" of furniture, and 
one on "Finishes." The last chapter describes 15 methods of wood ilnisliing, 
all adapted for use on furniture. $1.00. 

PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING. By Crawshaw. 

Contains 25 full-page plates of working drawings covering spindle, face- 
plate, and chuck turning. It gives the mathematical basis for the cuts used in 
turning. A valuable textbook for students' use. 80 cents. 

WORKSHOP NOTE-BOOK— WOODWORKING. By Greene. 

A note-book which furnishes a few general and extremely imj^ortanl 
directions about tools and processes; and provides space for additional notes 
and working drawings. It is essentially a collection of helps, ideas, hints, 
suggestions, questions, facts, illustrations, etc. The note-book is full of sug- 
gestions; shows a keen insight into subject matter and teaching methods and 
is an effective teaching tool. 15 cents. 

MANUAL TRAINING TOYS FOR THE BOY'S WORKSHOP. 
By Moore. 

A popular boy's book. It contains 35 pages of full-page plates of working 
drawings illustrating 42 projects. All the projects are overflowing with "boy" 
interest, and are well adapted to the upper grades of the elementary school. 
The text treats of tools and tool processes and gives instructions for making 
each project. $1.00. 
KITECRAFT AND KITE TOURNAMENTS. By Miller. 

Authoritative and comprehensive. The book deals with the construction 
and flying of all kinds of kites, and the making and using of kite accessories. 
Also aeroplanes, gliders, propellers, motors, etc. Abundantly illustrated and 
attractively bound. $1.00. 
PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING. By Bennett. 

A students' textbook consisting of 80 plates of problems classified into 
groups according to principle, and arranged according to difficulty of solution. 
Each problem is given unsolved and therefore in proper form to hand to the 
pupil for solution. The best collection of problems for first year high school 
students available. 75 cents. 
MECHANICAL DRAFTING. By Miller. 

A textbook on mechanical drawing, for advanced high school and first 
year engineering students. The book abounds in illustrations, both line draw- 
ings and half-tones. A practical treatment of subject matter and a students' 
text easily adaptable to varied schools and conditions. Contains 219 pages 
and 225 illustrations, and is bound in black flexible leather, pocket size. $1.50. 
SIMPLIFIED MECHANICAL PERSPECTIVE. By Frederick. 

A textbook of simple problems covering the essentials of mechanical 
perspective. It is planned for pupils of high school age who have already 
received some elementary training in mechanical drawing. It is simple, direct 
and practical. 75 cents. 
BOOKS ON THE MANUAL ARTS 

A bibliography, listing and describing over 400 titles, mailed free. 



THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS 

PEORIA, ILLINOIS 



